Topic 2. Engineering arrangement of territories

landscape gardening objects

2. Drainage of the territory

4. Territory lighting

1. Organization of surface water runoff

The organization of surface water runoff at landscaping objects is a set of engineering measures that provide, first of all, for the removal of surface water from the territory and individual sections, drainage and irrigation the territory of the facility by arranging a system of special structures. The organization of surface runoff is carried out by a complex solution for the vertical planning of the territory and is an indispensable condition for the improvement of any landscaped area. Surface runoff is formed by showers, rains, and melt water. Under natural conditions, they flow down the slopes, accumulate in the lowlands, forming drainless places. Surface water contributes to the process of soil erosion, is the cause of the formation of ravines, landslides, rising groundwater levels and flooding of park roads, sites, structures. The high standing of groundwater sharply worsens the physical properties of soils, their agronomic characteristics, creating unfavorable conditions for the growth of vegetation. At landscaping facilities, in gardens and parks, the road and path network, recreation and sports grounds must always be in a dry state.

The occurrence of groundwater in this case should be at a fairly constant level, meet certain requirements for these structures. The main task of the preparation of landscaped areas is the removal of surface water, the elimination of swampy areas, the drainage of areas allocated for roads, recreation areas, by appropriately lowering the level of groundwater. There are three systems for organizing the flow of water from the territories. Closed system - when the water runoff is diverted using an underground piping system - a drainage network; such a system is applicable to urban facilities of squares on squares, boulevards along highways, in areas of entertainment and sports park complexes. The water is diverted to the city drainage network.

Open system - when water is diverted using a ground network of ditches, trays, ditches; the open system is applicable in the territory of settlements, suburban areas, as well as large parks and forest parks. An open system is characterized by ease of work, low cost of materials and money, but it has a relatively low throughput.

A mixed drainage system includes a combination of closed underground water pipes and open ditches and flumes; such a network is applicable in city parks, where there are pronounced zones of the main entrance and attractions, sports complexes and passive recreation areas that have a forest-park character of plantings. On the territory of parks, urban gardens, boulevards, surface runoff can be organized into areas of the plantations themselves - into lawns, plant groups - by raising roads above the relief of adjacent lawns. This method is especially useful in dry climates. In cases where the territory of the planted object has excessive moisture, measures are developed that consist in a continuous decrease in the level of groundwater, that is, an open drainage system is arranged. Such a system is a network of open ditches, ditches, trays of various widths, depths and lengths. The system consists of dryers, collectors, main canals and water inlets (Fig. 19). To create such a system, a special project for land reclamation is being developed. The main element of the network is dehumidifiers covering the entire drained area of ​​the park. Experience shows that in the swampy areas of parks and forest parks, the distances between dehumidifiers can be 10 ... 25 m at a laying depth of 0.5 ... 1 m, which allows lowering the groundwater level to 1 ... 1.5 m.

Collectors and main canals serve mainly to move excess water to water receivers - ponds, lakes, rivers - which, in turn, play a drainage role in their locations on the site itself. The walls of the ditches are strengthened with turf, or the so-called "turf crumb", "pieces of turf". This contributes to the rapid formation of grass cover and the fixing of channels from erosion by water. To transfer water from a ditch to a ditch, special pipes (transitions) are used, mounted from reinforced concrete pipes with a diameter of 0.5 ... 1 m. . One of the disadvantages of an open drainage system is the need for systematic maintenance of pipes (crossings), walls and bottom of ditches, especially after heavy floods or prolonged heavy rains.

At urban facilities, both an open network is created, when water is sent through open trays of paths to storm water wells, and a closed network, which provides for the drainage of sports fields, playgrounds around entertainment facilities, etc.

Such a system, including open trays along the roads, water intake wells, underground pipelines, is called sewage.

Sewerage at a landscaping site is a system of open trays along roads and pipes laid underground at a certain slope to each other. Rain, melt and sewage are removed by gravity along the slope. In gardens and parks, as a rule, the so-called storm sewer is arranged. In a number of cases, in large city parks, along with storm sewers, household sewers are installed to remove household waste. Hydrological and hydraulic calculations determine the estimated flow rates of surface water and the corresponding diameters of drain collectors at a certain longitudinal slope. Hydraulic calculation of drains, that is, calculation of pipe diameters, is carried out using tables by specialists. The tables are compiled on the basis of the dependence of the pipe diameter, longitudinal slope, water velocity, and drainage capacity. An important element of the calculation is the magnitude of the rain intensity, which is determined by the formula:

The time for surface runoff to flow along the open tray of the park road to the initial water intake - usually necessary for calculating the network on the territory - is taken within 3 ... .5 minutes, depending on the length of the path along the surface to open trays. An important indicator in the development of a storm sewer project is the water flow, which is determined by the formula

The runoff coefficient n depends on the percentage of the coverage area to the total area of ​​the object. The value of Q depends on the duration of the rain and the speed of the resulting water flows. Precipitation falling on the surface of the territory of the park, garden, partially evaporates, part enters the drainage network, part infiltrates into the soil. These phenomena are taken into account by the runoff coefficient, which depends on the type of landscape gardening. The values ​​of runoff coefficients for various types of coatings are represented by the following values:

Concrete pavements 0.95

Paving stones 0.60

Crushed stone coatings 0.40

Ground surfaces 0.20

Green spaces 0.1 ...0.2

The storm network is calculated in such a way that the water runoff is removed from the facility mainly by gravity into the city sewers. Sometimes, due to the peculiarities of the local terrain and the points of reception of effluents in the city sewer, pressure transfer pipelines with a pumping station are arranged to supply wastewater from the park to the watershed point. From there, wastewater flows by gravity along the continuation of the pipeline. Storm sewers are divided into sewers:

internal type, collecting runoff from a green area of ​​the combined type, collecting runoff from all parts of the green area; the combined sewerage ends at the output control well.

The experience of designing and building gardens and parks in St. Petersburg has established the following pipe parameters for pipelines. Pipeline diameter d is: d=150..250mm, with slope i=4...5%. The diameter of the pipeline of the connecting branch, directed from the control well of the integrated network to the manhole of the main channel, is

The minimum slope along the bottom of the trays, 4% o, should ensure the flow of rainwater at a speed of 0.4 ... 0.6 m / s, excluding silting of the trays. On the territory of gardens and parks, a tray can serve as a pairing of a lawn with the surface of a park path. Such pairing is carried out from paving elements - from flat cobblestone, stone tiles, special side stone - "curb".

In areas of relief, the speed of water flow can be high and, as a result, will erode the territory. In this case, the so-called fast currents are arranged in the form of stepped drops. An element of a closed drainage system in this case is a storm water well, which is installed in places where the relief is lowered. Wells are arranged, as a rule, from reinforced concrete and equipped with a metal grate. The minimum size of a well with a round shape is 0.7 m, with a rectangular shape - 0.6x0.9. Throughout the storm network, concrete wells of various purposes are installed:
storm water, or storm, - for the reception (interception) of surface water;
viewing - for cleaning blockages in the network and in the collectors; they are located with pipes with diameters d = 100, 125, 150 ... 600 mm every 35, 40 and 50 m, respectively.

Wells must be closed from above with a lid without holes. Rainwater wells are installed in low areas of the territory, at the central entrances, at the intersections of alleys and main park roads, depending on the longitudinal slope, at an average distance of 50 to 150 m. The first, or initial, well is located at a distance of 150 ... 200 m from watershed. This is called the length of water run over which water flows along the open flume of the park road. Rainwater wells are connected through manholes to underground drains with a pipe diameter d=250mm (Fig. 20).

The material for the pipelines of the network are ceramic, pottery paths, asbestos-cement, concrete and reinforced concrete pipes. In the case of separate operation, storm sewers can also have an outlet into an open water intake - into a pond, river, lake, etc., which is arranged in the form of a concrete or stone open tray with drops to dampen the spillway rate. The outlet, as a rule, ends with a “head”, arranged in the form of a sheer brick or concrete retaining wall: the side walls and the bed of the outer drain tray are covered or concreted to a height h = 5 ... 10 m.

Work on the installation of sewer networks is carried out by specialized construction organizations under the control of the general contractor for the construction of a landscape gardening facility according to a special project, which determines the routes of networks, the depth of laying pipelines and wells, and building materials.

2. Drainage of the territory

For the structural elements of the park, the garden, there are certain values ​​​​of the level of groundwater. Such values ​​are characterized by the so-called norm of drainage of the territory. The rate of drainage of the territory of the landscaping object is understood as the smallest distance from the groundwater horizon to the earth's surface under given design conditions. So, for planting trees in arrays, clumps, groups, singly, the drainage rate should be within 1 ... 1.5 m. For lawns with grass herbage, this rate should be no more than 0.5 m. is a closed system of pipes, or "drains", embedded in the soil at different depths (Fig. 21). Drain is a technical structure, with the help of which excess groundwater is removed from a certain area; for example, from a sports field or from a football field. A scheme of a closed drainage network is created following the example of an open reclamation system (Fig. 21). The effectiveness of the drainage depends on the distance between the drainage drains, which is determined by the depth of the drains at a given rate of drainage according to the Rote formula:

Drainages are arranged according to a specially developed project, which provides for:
- laying route with indication of drain slopes in a given direction;

Constructive section of the "body" of the drain;

The depth of the foundation of the drain.

With the minimum allowable slopes from i = 3 ... 10%, it is customary to lay the foundation of the drain to a depth of 0.7 ... .2.0 m. net. In this case, the area to be drained is covered by drainage from all sides and forms a ring system. Water is diverted to one or more water inlets.

For sports grounds, another drainage system is also used, the so-called "Christmas tree" drainage. Drainage drains are placed at an angle to each other and lead them to the collectors (Fig. 22). From the collectors, water enters the drainage network.

When using organo-synthetic materials in the upper layers of sports facilities - rubber-bitumen mixture, recortan, etc. - an open receiving tray is arranged around sports arenas, through which water enters the wells and leaves through pipes to the water intake, which creates the possibility of immediate removal of atmospheric precipitation from non-draining surfaces of structures. The design of drainage manholes is similar to drain and sewer manholes. Wells are located along the network in the same way: at the junction of drains to a collector or sewer drain, at turns or when changing the diameter of the pipeline. For drainage, inert materials are used - gravel, crushed stone, coarse sand. With deep laying of drains - 1.5 ... 2 m - drainage pipes are also used, ceramic without a socket and socket, concrete, pottery and asbestos-cement. The experience of landscape gardening construction in St. Petersburg has shown that asbestos-cement pipes 2 ... 4 m long, connected by couplings, are most convenient in laying. To receive water, holes are made in the lower part of the pipes or on the sides with a diameter of d \u003d 8..12mm, 40.. .60 pcs. per 1 p.m of pipe. Water enters concrete and ceramic pipes through joints, which must be tightly sealed with burlap, matting or glass wool. A backfill consisting of two or three layers of inert materials is arranged around the pipes. The diameters d of the drainage pipes depend on the slopes. i=10...5%, d=100...200mm, at i=3%, d=200...300mm. At shallow depths, drain pipes are not used. In this case, the drain is filled to the full depth layer by layer with inert materials with a gradual decrease in particle fractions from 50...70 mm from the bottom to 2...5 mm towards the surface. Work on preparing trenches for drainage is carried out using trenchers, in the case of loose soil, or "bar" attachments on a tractor in frozen ground. With deep drains - up to 2 m - for digging trenches, a special excavator with a profile bucket is used, which allows you to perform the established profile of both the bottom and walls of the trench without additional fastening during further work on laying the "body" of the drainage.

3. Irrigation of territories and installation of water supply

In areas with an arid climate in gardens and parks, a special irrigation system is used, which is arranged according to the example of an open reclamation or closed drainage network. Its main goal is to provide green spaces with water. An open irrigation system is irrigation canals - ditches laid on the surface of the site. It is intended for irrigation of plantings on the streets. A closed irrigation system is special irrigation pipes laid at a certain depth - drains. To do this, use pottery, ceramic or concrete pipes with holes through which water seeps to the roots of plants. A closed irrigation system is very expensive and can only be applied to small and most important urban sites. When designing a closed irrigation system, an irrigation rate is set, depending on the irrigation area.

The irrigation scheme, depending on the conditions of the relief, can be branched or closed. In modern gardens and parks for irrigation of lawns, golf courses, football fields, various types of installations are applicable. A sprinkler with an automatic system is used - with special timers, electromagnetic valves, soil moisture and sprinkling sensors. Known automatic sprinkling plant company Rain Bird, which is used on lawn golf courses and football fields. The installation includes a control box, valves, spray nozzles, a garden sprinkler. The control unit with a timer controls the start-up of the installation, water consumption, and the duration of sprinkling. Sprinklers and nozzles are connected to the control unit and quickly actuated. Sensors and valves control the degree of soil moisture and, if necessary, send impulses to the control unit, which provides a uniform dosed sprinkling of the surface. Plumbing device. To supply gardens and parks with water, a special type of plumbing system is arranged.

The household water supply is an integral part of the maintenance of each garden and park facility and, depending on its size, performs various functions: it is used throughout the year for the needs of residential, public and utility buildings located at the facility, as well as when filling ice rinks and other winter play and sports facilities. Irrigation water supply is arranged to provide irrigation of green spaces, landscape gardening paths and playgrounds, flat sports facilities (Fig. 23).

In the project of a utility water supply for a landscaping object, the following issues are solved:
1) determination of the place of connection of the water supply to the city water supply network;

2) selection of the optimal water supply scheme for the facility and diameters of pipelines for transportation and distribution of water throughout the facility;

3) determination of the total need for water, which will be used for watering plantations, road and footpath network, sports flat structures, as well as for filling fountains and other water devices.

According to the total water demand, the water consumption per day and per second is calculated. This is necessary to find a sufficient source of water supply - a natural reservoir, an artesian well, a city water supply. The diameter of the pipes depends on the flow of water, so it is determined by a special hydraulic calculation. To do this, attract a specialist hydraulic engineer. The minimum pipe size must be 38 mm. Pipes are laid in trenches, which are pre-profiled, and the bottom is compacted. Before laying the pipes, they are treated with insulating materials - bitumen, mastic, asphalt varnish, etc. This protects them from corrosion and increases their service life. After installation of the entire water supply network, pipes and joints are tested under a pressure of at least 2.5 atm for suitability and strength. All detected defects are eliminated. The tests are repeated, after which the trenches are covered with soil using a bulldozer. Before backfilling, an act is drawn up for hidden work and testing of pipelines. The water supply network works under pressure. For the installation of a water supply network, steel, cast iron, asbestos-cement and reinforced concrete pipes are used. The depth of laying of utility water pipes should be 0.2 ... .0.3 m below the soil freezing horizon. Irrigation water supply is made of steel or cast iron pipes. The depth of the pipes, as a rule, is from 0.25 to 0.5 m. In some cases, the pipes are laid directly on the soil surface. Pipelines are given a slope i=1..3% in the direction of absorbing wells, which are necessary to drain water from the system in winter. The surface water supply network for the winter is dismantled and stored indoors. This significantly increases the life of such scarce elements as pipes. Both types of water supply are arranged in accordance with the project. Pipes are laid according to a scheme developed in advance along the edges of lawn sections, along paths or sites. The entire water supply network is built on a ring system so that any repaired part can be turned off without interrupting the operation of the entire water supply. For this purpose, mechanical valves are installed in wells located on the water supply network every 300 ... 500 m. Two dead-end pipes from the nearest well are laid to an outbuilding or structure that needs water supply. Subsequently, the network is "looped". On the distributing water supply network, wells for various purposes with a depth of 0.7 ... 2 m are provided, made of brick or concrete or in the form of cast-iron columns. Inspection wells along the entire drainage route are installed every 100 ... 120 m. In some cases, fire wells with a hydrant are arranged on the territory of sports complexes, which are placed every 70 ... taps installed through 40 ... 5 Ohm. Such wells and taps are used for watering sites, roads. In winter, insulated concrete or wooden boxes are put on watering taps, which protect the tap risers from freezing.

Water pipeline crossings through obstacles are organized in various ways. The ravines are crossed by a special passage or a siphon. Under the bridge, the pipeline is laid in an insulated case. At the intersection of a high dam road or railway embankment, the pipes are laid in a metal casing. Across a river or stream, pipes are laid below the bottom. In modern conditions, in small areas, in "small gardens", special installations of the "summer water supply" are used, which consists of a garden tap, a plastic watering hydrant, a hydrant key, and polyethylene pipes. Such a system is very mobile, quickly mounted and moved from site to site.

4. Territory lighting

Lighting is designed to ensure the safe movement of pedestrians in the evening along the paths and alleys, thereby creating comfortable conditions for evening walks. When illuminating park areas, it is necessary to distinguish between lighting installations that perform utilitarian and decorative functions. Utility settings provide lighting for pedestrian paths. Installations of decorative value are intended for highlighting structures, sculptures, fountains, reservoirs, trees, shrubs, flower beds. Lighting should be assigned one of the important roles in creating the landscape and architectural appearance of the evening park. At the same time, all lighting elements should be aesthetically attractive in the daytime. All types of lighting installations must work in cooperation with each other, taking into account the tasks of illuminating different elements of the object. Bright illumination of water surfaces or wet asphalt creates discomfort for a person - blinding effect. When designing lighting, they use such lighting concepts as luminous flux, lm; light intensity, cd; illumination, lx and brightness, cd/m. As experience shows, the norm of the average horizontal illumination of garden elements should be within 2.. .6 lux. Luminous flux is the power of light energy, measured in lumens, lm. The unit of illumination - lux, lx - is the illumination of a surface with an area of ​​​​1 m2 with a luminous flux of 1 lm. The unit of luminous intensity is the candela, cd, is the luminous flux in lumens, lm, emitted by a point source in a solid angle of 1 sr, lm / sr. The unit of light brightness is candela per 1 m2, cd/m2. The glare index P is a criterion for assessing the glare of the illuminator. An analysis of the practice of lighting landscaping objects allows us to recommend illumination standards, the type, height of a lamp, the intervals between lamps on alleys, roads, and recreation areas. In table. 2 indicates the approximate norms of illumination of landscape gardening structural elements.

table 2

Illumination standards, type, height of the luminaire

When illuminating park areas, a variety of light sources are used. The most common are incandescent lamps, arc mercury fluorescent lamps, and high pressure sodium lamps. Sodium lamp fixtures create a golden-orange hue of the subject and create "warm" tones. Lamps with mercury lamps illuminate objects with a bluish-green color and create "cold" tones. For lighting flower beds, it is important to select the spectral composition of light sources, taking into account the color of plants. The main thing is not to distort the color of plants. To illuminate trees and shrubs, incandescent lamps of 300, 400, 500 W, mercury lamps of 250 W, located at a height of 1 ... 1.5 m, are used. placed lamps. Such lamps are made in the form of table lamps with a reflector. They can be in the form of mushrooms, balls, cylinders of various heights and configurations. In the daytime, such lamps play the role of small architectural forms. To illuminate the territories of city squares and boulevards, lamps of the RTU-02-259-008-V type are used (P - with a mercury lamp; T - crowning; U - street; 02 ~ series number; 259 - lamp power in W; 008 - modification number ; VI - climatic version and placement category).

To illuminate cascades, fountains, lamps are usually placed as follows:
1. in special chambers at the bottom of fountains behind glazed windows;

2. under water at a depth of no more than 15...20 cm, closer to the exit of water jets;

3. under the spillway of falling water jets - cascades;

4. around the fountain - a flood light with a power incandescent lamp

at 500 W,

The power of lighting means is dictated by the shape of the object of illumination, the nature of the movement. The brightness of the water jets of the fountain is at least 300 cd/m. The power ratio of the fountain pumps should be taken at least: at a jet height of up to 3 m - 0.7; from 3 to 5 m - 1; more than 5 m-2. The decorative effect is achieved by installing a luminaire immersion in places where jets fall on the water surface. Lighting of a landscape gardening facility is developed according to a special project and is created using a system of electrical cables connected to the lamps and laid in a trench. In some cases, in forest parks, cables are hung on contact network supports, but this should be a temporary measure. The choice of light source is based on the economy of the installation and the correct color rendering. Supports for park lamps are metal or reinforced concrete. They are installed on lawns in the same row with trees. The lighting network is laid, connected to a power source and handed over to the customer for inclusion by a special construction and installation organization.

Fundamentals of engineering arrangement and equipment of the territory

Section 1. Significance of engineering arrangement and equipment of the territory

The concept and tasks of engineering arrangement of the territory

During the construction and operation of settlements, tasks inevitably arise to improve the functional and aesthetic properties of the territory - its landscaping, watering, lighting, etc., which is provided by means of urban improvement.

Any settlement (city, township), architectural complex or a separate building is built on a specific territory, site, characterized by certain conditions - topography, groundwater standing level, risk of flood waters, etc. Engineering preparation tools make it possible to make the territory most suitable for construction and operation of architectural structures and their complexes at optimal cost of funds.

The development and improvement of the territories of populated areas is an important urban planning problem, in the solution of which many specialists, including architects, participate. The territory chosen for the construction of a city or already developed area often requires improvement, improvement of aesthetic qualities, landscaping, protection from various negative influences. These tasks are solved by means of engineering preparation and landscaping. At the initial stage of the construction of cities, as a rule, the best territories are chosen for development, which do not require large works on engineering preparation. With the growth of cities, the limit of such territories ends and it is necessary to build up inconvenient and complex territories that require significant measures to prepare them for construction.

Thus, the engineering arrangement of the territory includes two stages: the engineering preparation of the territory and its improvement.

Engineering preparation of the territory- these are works based on techniques and methods changes and improvements in the physical properties of the territory or its protection from unfavorable physical and geological influences.

The solution of the issues of adaptation and arrangement of the territory for the needs of urban planning is referred to the improvement of these territories. That is, engineering preparation precedes the construction of the city, and landscaping is already a component of the process of building and developing the city, with the goal of creating healthy living conditions in it.

- work related to improvement of functional and aesthetic qualities territories already prepared in engineering respect. Engineering improvement of the territory includes the whole range of activities aimed at multifaceted services for both rural and urban areas.

Elements of city improvement:

construction of a road network, bridges, laying out of parks, gardens, squares, landscaping and lighting of streets and territories, as well as providing the city with a complex of engineering communications - water supply, sewerage, heat and gas supply, organization of sanitary cleaning of territories and the air basin of the city (with the help of landscaping).

Master plans of cities

The layout of the city can be characterized as the organization of its territory, determined by a set of economic, architectural, planning, hygienic and technical tasks and requirements. The most progressive method of urban design is complex method when issues of engineering training are simultaneously resolved,

urban development and improvement. But this is possible only in the conditions of designing a new city.

The improvement and development of the urban environment of the existing city is solved by reconstructing (rebuilding, restoring) the old quarters and building new areas that meet the new requirements.

The urban planning system has a multi-stage structure (planning, design stages) in the direction from large territories to smaller ones and from territories to individual objects.

Main design stages:

- territorial planning - schemes and projects of regional planning of regions, regions, administrative districts;

- master plans of cities;

- projects of detailed planning of urban areas (city center, administrative and planning areas, residential areas and microdistricts, etc.);

building projects - technical projects of ensembles, squares, streets, embankments, etc.

The purpose of developing master plans for cities is to determine rational ways of organizing and prospective development of residential and industrial areas, a network of service institutions, a transport network, engineering equipment and energy.

General plan of the city is a long-term comprehensive urban planning document, in which, based on an analysis of the current state of the city, a forecast is developed for the development of all structural elements for a period of up to 25 years. Within the boundaries of the city limits, the following functional zones are distinguished in the master plan:

- residential (territories of residential areas and microdistricts);

– industrial;

- territories of community centers;

– recreational (gardens, squares, parks, forest parks);

- utility and warehouse;

– transport;

- others.

All these zones are interconnected by a network of streets and roads of various classes; V

As a result, the planning structure of the city is formed. Basic drawings

city ​​master plan are:

– functional zoning scheme;

- the scheme of the planning organization of the city territory.

As part of the master plan, issues of engineering improvement (including landscaping) of the city, transport and engineering services are also being developed.

Issues of engineering preparation, together with a comprehensive assessment of the territory, are usually resolved at the previous design stage - in the schemes and projects of the district planning and the feasibility study for the development of the city.

1. Goals and objectives of the development of the master plan (draft planning of the settlement)
2. Assignment for the design of the layout of the settlement

1. Natural conditions for the suitability of territories for the construction of settlements

1. The main aspects and the most important principles of planning, their relationship
2. Zoning of the territory of the settlement (functional, territorial, construction)
3. Requirements for the use of the territories of the main zones of the settlement

1. The planning structure of the settlement, its elements
2. Architectural and planning composition, definition, concepts, its components
3. The most important means and techniques of architectural and planning composition

1. Streets as the basis of the planning structure and architectural and planning composition of settlements

1. Typological and constructive characteristics of residential buildings
2. Sanitary-hygienic and fire-prevention requirements for the placement of residential buildings

1. Architectural and planning structure and composition of the residential area

1. Conditions for organizing cultural and community services for the population
2. Trade, catering and consumer services enterprises
3. Cooperative buildings and community center complexes

1. Structure, functions, architectural and spatial composition of the public center

1. The sequence and stages of the implementation of measures for the reconstruction of the residential area
2. Social and architectural planning tasks of reconstruction

1. The main tasks of engineering preparation of the territory of settlements
2. Types of engineering measures for the preparation of territories of settlements

1. Measures to preserve and improve the environment of settlements

1. Organization of an agricultural enterprise as the basis for the placement of production facilities
2. Functional relationships between industrial complexes, residential area, agricultural land and roads
3. Sanitary and hygienic veterinary and fire conditions for the location of production facilities
4. General rules for planning and building the territory of the production complex

1. General requirements for the formation of the industrial zone of the city

1. Urban planning requirements for the location of industry

1. A system of indicators for evaluating planning solutions for a residential and industrial zone

Engineering arrangement of settlements

Road construction. The most expensive type of improvement is the construction and equipment of roads passing through the streets. Their cost depends on the type of pavement and the design of the roadway. The quality of pavement affects the appearance of the village street.

Pavement used in settlements can be divided into improved capital, improved lightweight and transitional type.
Improved capital pavements include cement-concrete, asphalt-concrete, as well as cobbled, mosaic and clinker pavements on cement-concrete or crushed stone bases. Improved lightweight road pavements include crushed stone, treated with bitumen. Pavements of a transitional type (cobblestone, fragmentation, pavement, crushed stone, untreated with a binder) can be considered as temporary. Subsequently, they can be used as the basis for creating a higher class roadway. In all cases, a trough 35 ... 40 cm deep is provided with one or two layers of asphalt concrete 3 ... 4 cm thick. Sidewalks are covered with asphalt (3 cm) or asphalt tiles (4 cm) over a layer of crushed stone 10 ... 15 cm thick.

Water supply. This is the most important type of landscaping. It can satisfy the following needs: drinking, household, fire fighting, industrial, irrigation. Water supply can be local, group or centralized.

Local include water supply from mine wells and springs. The group system consists of a water intake from shaft wells and keys with the organization of capturing and water supply by pumps to the water supply network that supplies water to groups of buildings. The centralized water supply network draws water from closed sources (artesian wells) without water purification and from open sources (rivers, lakes) with preliminary water purification before supplying it to the network.

Sites for the placement of water intake facilities should be in favorable sanitary conditions. The sanitary protection zone for water supply sources consists of the first and second belts. In planning projects, the boundaries of the first belt, or zone of a strict sanitary regime, must be determined.

For underground water supply sources, the boundaries of the first sanitary protection belt are set depending on the protection of aquifers from the surface: for aquifers covered by waterproof layers, within a radius of at least 30 m, for unprotected horizons - 50 m (Figure 26).

For open sources of water supply, the zone of the first sanitary protection belt is established depending on local sanitary-topographic and hydrogeological conditions, but in all cases upstream - at least 200 m from the water intake, downstream - at least 100 m from the water intake, along the coast - not less than 100 m from the water line at its highest level.

The boundaries of the second belt are coordinated with the local sanitary and epidemiological station. Water taken from open sources for household and drinking purposes is defended, filtered and disinfected at a treatment plant.

Figure 26 - Sections of water intake facilities: A- section of a closed water source: R1 - zone of strict sanitary regime (30 m); R2 - sanitary protection zone (50 m); b - section of an open water source: 100, 150, 200 m - distance from the pumping station
first lift; I, II — residential and industrial areas

Waterworks are usually built according to standard designs. Their composition when using open sources of water supply is as follows: pumping station of the first rise at the place of water intake with a sanitary protection zone of a strict regime;

Sewerage. Wastewater that must be removed from settlements is divided into three types: household fecal, industrial and atmospheric effluents. The water discharge rate is 80% of the water consumption rate. For areas of non-sewer development, the water discharge rate is 25 liters per inhabitant per day.
For wastewater disposal, a separate sewerage system is used, incomplete separate and combined. A separate sewerage system consists of two networks of pipes for the disposal of household and fecal, industrial wastewater and rain (melt) water into the nearest water channels. An incomplete separate sewerage system accepts all drains, except for atmospheric ones, which are discharged through a system of open trays and channels. The general alloy system provides for the construction of a common sewer network to divert all wastewater to treatment facilities.

Depending on the nature and quantity of wastewater, mechanical and biological methods of their treatment are used.
The mechanical method is preparatory to biological treatment, and in favorable conditions - as an independent one, especially during the development of sewage. Mechanical cleaning facilities include screens, crushers, grit traps, grease traps, settling tanks. Biological treatment can be natural or artificial. Natural biological treatment is carried out in irrigation fields, filtration fields and in biological ponds, artificial in special treatment facilities using various technologies.

Irrigation fields are communal and agricultural, used for crops. The norm of the territory per 100 inhabitants is 35...70 ha for agricultural irrigation fields at a load of 5...20 m3 per 1 ha per day, for communal irrigation fields - 10.. .90 m3 per 1 ha. If there is not enough space, you can use the filtering fields. They require 3...5 ha per 1000 inhabitants at a load of 50...250 m3 per 1 ha. The arrangement of irrigation and filtration fields is possible in areas with average annual air temperatures not lower than 0 ° C in areas with a calm relief (slope no more than 2%), sandy, sandy or loamy soils. Along the contour of the irrigation and filtration fields, it is planned to plant strips of willow and other moisture-loving tree plantations 10 ... 20 m wide.

When choosing biological treatment facilities for rural settlements, first of all, it is necessary to establish the possibility of arranging an irrigation field or a filtration field. On the filtration fields, wastewater is preliminarily settled. Irrigation fields are arranged in all climatic zones, with the exception of the regions of the Far North and permafrost.
The auxiliary area for passage through the irrigation and drainage network is up to 25% of the usable area of ​​agricultural irrigation fields.
In the zone of one-story estate building, the installation of a centralized sewage system is uneconomical. In this case, local sewerage is possible in the form of underground filtration fields, the device of which is advisable for groups, as well as individual buildings.

In order to eliminate the pumping station and pressure collectors, it should not be allowed to build up streets with manor houses and blocked or sectional houses on different sides. Consequently, on both sides of the street with a sewer must be built up with blocked, sectional residential buildings connected to the sewer network. Manor houses must have their own local flush sewer system.

Heat supply. Centralized heat supply in rural settlements is designed for sectional and blocked residential buildings, for public and part of industrial buildings. Heat is received from a general settlement or from a local boiler house, which is located in separate areas outside residential areas, as close as possible to the center of heat loads, taking into account the relief of the territory and the prevailing winds.
The size of the site for the boiler house when operating on solid fuel is 0.5 ha, on liquid fuel - 0.25, on gaseous fuel - 0.15 ha. From residential and public buildings when working on solid fuels, boiler rooms are located no closer than 35 m, on liquid fuel - 25 m and on gaseous fuel - 15 m.
Individual heat supply is obtained using furnaces of various designs.

Gas supply. Settlements are supplied with gas from main natural gas pipelines, gas plants and from liquefied gas installations. Natural gas is supplied through pipes through gas distribution stations and gas control points, where the gas pressure is reduced to the consumer norm. Gas distribution stations are built outside settlements, and gas control points are built on settlement gas networks.
In settlements remote from gas sources, bottled gas supply with liquefied gas is widespread. Cylinders for supplying buildings with liquefied gas are installed in metal cabinets attached to the blank walls of buildings. There are also group installations with storage of liquefied gas in underground tanks. Depending on the volume of tanks, the nature and fire resistance of buildings, they are placed at a distance of 8 ... 50 m from buildings. The place of storage of tanks is fenced off, driveways with a hard surface are laid to it.

Power supply. Settlements are electrified mainly from the network of state high-voltage lines. If it is impossible or inappropriate to connect to the energy system, power supply from a local power plant is provided.
Overhead power lines (TL) with a voltage of 35 kV and above are located outside settlements. Electric networks with voltage up to 10 kV are placed in settlements, and step-down transformers are installed at the input points of power lines. The distance from them to buildings depends on the degree of fire resistance of buildings: at the first and second degrees of fire resistance - 7 ... 10 m, at the third degree - 9 ... 12 m, at the fourth and fifth - 10 ... 16 m.
The width of the security zone of power lines from the extreme wires on both sides is: for lines up to 20 kV - 10 m, for lines up to 35 kV - 15 m.

Telephone and radio. In rural settlements, telephone and radio installation is carried out from district exchanges more often via overhead lines, less often via underground cables laid at a depth of 0.4-0.5 m.

© Mikhalev Yu.A. Fundamentals of urban planning and planning of settlements. Textbook / Krasnoyarsk State Agrarian University - Krasnoyarsk, 2012 - 237 p.

2. According to the existing classification of the planting system in the city, which group do the parks of culture and recreation of regional significance in large cities belong to?

Green spaces in the city improve the microclimate of the urban area, create good conditions for outdoor recreation, protect the soil, building walls and sidewalks from excessive overheating. This can be achieved while maintaining natural green areas in residential areas.

In the practice of organizing a city greening system, it is customary to divide the territories of urban green spaces into three categories:

• 1. General use - parks of culture and recreation (citywide, district), children's, sports parks (stadiums), parks for quiet rest and walks, gardens of residential areas and microdistricts, squares, boulevards, green areas along the streets and embankments, green areas at public urban shopping and administrative centers, forest parks, etc.
• 2. Limited use - plantings in residential areas (with the exception of gardens of microdistricts), plantings in the territories of children's and educational institutions, sports and cultural and educational institutions, public and health care institutions, at clubs, cultural palaces, houses of pioneers, at research institutions , in the territories of sanitary-harmless industrial enterprises.
• 3. Special purpose - plantings along streets, highways and squares, plantings of communal storage areas and sanitary protection zones, botanical, zoological gardens and parks, exhibitions, windproof, water and soil protection plantings, fire-fighting plantations, land reclamation plantings, nurseries, flower and greenhouse farms, plantations of cemeteries and crematoria.

Public plantings - plantations accessible to all residents of the city and visitors, protecting from dust, excessive solar radiation, creating comfortable conditions for short-term and long-term recreation, physical education and sports, cultural, educational and entertainment events.

The degree of landscaping of the city, its attractiveness is largely determined by the number and condition of public green spaces.

SNiP 11-60-75* in plantings for common use allocates landscaped areas of citywide significance (used for organizing long-term rest from 2 to 8 hours) and landscaping of residential areas.

The most widespread in the cities are children's parks, sports and parks of culture and recreation. Depending on the characteristics of a particular city, the prospects for its development and the natural and climatic conditions of the area, zoos and botanical gardens, exhibition parks, entertainment parks, ethnographic, memorial, etc. can be created. When creating botanical and ethnographic parks, landscape and relief are of paramount importance terrain. The natural environment should correspond as closely as possible to the intended exposure. For botanical gardens, climatic conditions are very important, and for ethnographic parks, the presence of monuments of ancient culture and folk architecture in the allotted territory. The creation of historical and memorial parks, as a rule, is associated with the territory on which important historical events took place in the life of the people, the state, or with preserved monuments that are directly related to the life of great people. A special group is made up of parks - monuments of gardening art. Plantations of limited use are intended for outdoor physical education and sports, for classes in special subjects and games for children, medical and preventive procedures, and rest in between work. They are used by employees of enterprises and institutions, students and students of educational institutions, patients and visitors to medical institutions, etc., located in this green area.

Any object of urban green spaces, regardless of the specific functions assigned to it, is an integral part of a unified city greening system, created taking into account the administrative significance and size of the city, its architectural and planning structure and the solution of the building composition, as well as taking into account local natural and climatic features.

The change in the size of the city must be carried out periodically and carried out primarily by simultaneously improving the structure. The need to allocate a territory for development should be foreseen in advance, defining for these purposes the boundaries for the gradual expansion of the city area. A certain stabilization of the green belt of the city for a long period (20 years or more) becomes a deterrent against spontaneous development of the territory.

Boarding houses, motels, rest houses, campsites, beaches, sports facilities and complexes, fishing bases, pioneer camps, children's cottages, forest schools, medical institutions, boarding schools for the elderly and disabled are located within the green zone.

Settlements existing within the green zone are not subject to territorial development.

For cities located in treeless areas, instead of a green zone, it is necessary to provide for the creation on the windward side for winds of the prevailing direction of a protective strip of green spaces with a width of: for the largest and large cities - 500 m, for large and medium-sized cities - 100 m, for small towns, villages and rural settlements - 50 m.

The planning of the suburban and green zones is carried out taking into account the existing planning of the city and its prospects with a set of measures aimed at maximizing the preservation of existing plantings.

3. Sewer systems

Under sewerage, it is customary to understand a set of sanitary measures and engineering structures that ensure the timely collection of wastewater generated on the territory of settlements and industrial enterprises, the rapid removal (transportation) of these waters outside settlements, as well as their purification, neutralization and disinfection.

The main pollution of wastewater is human physiological excretions, waste and garbage obtained when washing food, dishes, premises, washing linen, as well as generated in technological processes at industrial enterprises.

The sewerage system and scheme is chosen as a complex of engineering structures for reliable and long-term maintenance of residential, industrial and agricultural facilities, taking into account the adopted water supply system, rational use of water resources, sanitary and hygienic and technical and economic requirements. When choosing a sewerage system for settlements, first of all, it is necessary to establish a drainage scheme and determine the places for the release of rainwater.

The release of rainwater when choosing any sewerage system is not allowed into surface watercourses flowing within populated areas at flow rates in them less than 0.05 m/s and flow rates up to 1 m3/s; in reservoirs in places designated for beaches, in stagnant reservoirs, in ponds, lakes, fish ponds (without special agreement), in closed hollows and lowlands prone to swamping, in eroded ravines, if strengthening of their channel and banks is not provided. The release of rainwater into swampy floodplains is not recommended.

A separate sewerage system can be complete or incomplete (figure 3.1).

A complete separate sewerage system should be adopted for large and comfortable cities and industrial enterprises:

• - if it is possible to discharge all rainwater into surface water channels;
• - if necessary, according to the conditions of the terrain, the installation of more than three district pumping stations;
• - at the calculated intensity of rain lasting 20 minutes more than 80 l/s per 1 ha;
• - if necessary, complete biological wastewater treatment.

Figure 3.1 - Separate sewerage system

site building planting green

It is advisable to arrange an incomplete separate sewerage system in cities and towns of urban and rural types, where the use of such a system is compatible with the general level of improvement, or to allow it as the first stage in the construction of a separate sewerage system.

It is advisable to take a semi-separated sewerage system:

• - for cities with more than 50 thousand inhabitants;
• - with low-water or stagnant intra-city water bodies and water channels;
• - for water areas used for swimming and water sports;
• - with increased requirements for the protection of water bodies from pollution by rain and melt water.

Common sewerage systems are called sewerage systems in which all wastewater - domestic, industrial and rainwater - is fused through one common network of pipes and channels outside the urban area to treatment facilities (Figure 3.2).

Figure 3.2 - Alloy sewerage system

The combined sewerage system is used for cities with multi-storey buildings:

• - if there are powerful water channels in the territory of the sewerage system or near it, allowing the reception of rain and irrigation water;
• - with a limited number of district pumping stations with a low height of sewage;
• - when the estimated intensity of rain for 20 minutes is less than 80 l/s per 1 ha.

The combined system combines elements of the combined and complete separate sewerage systems. It is advisable to use it in the reconstruction and expansion of sewerage in large cities (with a population of more than 100 thousand people), individual areas of which differ in the nature of development, degree of improvement, topography and other local conditions. Combined systems are applied in Leningrad, Odessa, Riga and other cities. Most of the world's major cities are sewered by a common or combined system.

Sewerage of industrial enterprises should be carried out, as a rule, according to a complete separate system. In the rain sewer system, it is possible to divert the most polluted part of rain and melt water for treatment. On the territories of industrial enterprises, networks of domestic, industrial (contaminated water), rainwater and industrial-rainfall (uncontaminated industrial waters) sewers, as well as special production networks for diverting acidic, alkaline, sludge and other wastewater can be provided. The choice of a sewerage system and scheme in all cases should be made taking into account sanitary and hygienic requirements and technical and economic calculations.

At the same time, such schemes and a sewerage system are chosen that will be the most reliable in terms of sanitary and hygienic indicators and economical in terms of construction and operating costs for the entire complex of structures, including external networks, pumping stations and treatment facilities.

The internal sewerage of buildings, as a rule, has the following elements (Figure 3.3):

Water intake devices:

shells; sinks; toilet bowls; urinals; bidet; ladders; shower trays; catchment funnels; production equipment.

Figure 3.3 - Typical sewerage scheme

Piping system:

ventilation risers brought to the roof or vacuum valves; eyeliners and collectors - horizontal pipelines; risers - vertical pipelines; revisions and cleanings; releases to the external sewerage; shut-off valves on outlets; sound insulation.

Additional items:

sewage pumping systems; local cleaning systems.

External sewer networks, as a rule, are gravity-flowing, laid with a slope along the drains,

External sewerage can be organized according to the following systems:

common alloy - collectors accept both rainwater and domestic wastewater; separate - there are separate collectors for receiving rain and domestic wastewater; semi-separate - networks separately collect rain and domestic wastewater, delivering them to a common collector. External sewerage is divided into:

intra-yard networks; street networks; collectors. Elements of external networks are: pipelines; wells (inspection, rotary, differential and so on). As a rule, they are equipped with hatches with covers and brackets for descending service personnel into them; pumping stations; local treatment facilities; septic tanks; releases to water intakes.

4. What is the idea of ​​the architect A. Lenotre in creating parks (Versailles - France)?

Versailles is a small town near Paris. Today it is known to everyone, because here is a masterpiece of landscape architecture - a grandiose palace and park complex. It arose on the site of a small palace and hunting grounds of Louis XIII, which occupied only 100 hectares. At this place, the Sun King Louis XIV instructs Le Nôtre to build a park of unprecedented scope, which will be worthy of His Majesty and glorify his power (Figure 4.1).

In the first half of the XVII century. the capital of France gradually turned from a fortress city into a residence city. The appearance of Paris was now determined not by fortress walls and castles, but by palaces, parks, a regular system of streets and squares.

In architecture, the transition from castle to palace can be traced by comparing the two buildings. The Luxembourg Palace in Paris (1615-1621, architect Salomon de Bros), all of whose buildings are located along the perimeter of a large courtyard, with its powerful forms still resembles a castle fenced off from the outside world. In the Maisons-Laffite Palace near Paris (1642-1650, architect Francois Mansart) there is no longer a closed courtyard, the building has a U-shape in plan, which makes its appearance more open (although it is surrounded by a moat). This phenomenon in architecture was supported by the state: the royal decree of 1629 forbade the construction of military fortifications in castles.

Around the palace in the first half of the XVII century. the architect necessarily arranged a park in which strict order reigned: green spaces were neatly trimmed, alleys intersected at right angles, flower beds formed regular geometric shapes. Such a park was called regular, or French.

Figure 4.1 - plan of the Versailles possessions

The pinnacle of the development of a new direction in architecture was Versailles - the grandiose front residence of the French kings near Paris. At first, a royal hunting castle appeared there (1624). The main construction unfolded during the reign of Louis XIV in the late 60s. The most prominent architects participated in the creation of the project: Louis Levo (circa 1612-1670), Jules Hardouin-Mansart (1646-1708) and the outstanding decorator of gardens and parks Andre Le Nôtre (1613-1700). According to their plan, the Grand Palace - the main part of the complex - was to be located on an artificial terrace where the three main avenues of Versailles converge. One of them - the middle one - leads to Paris, and two side ones - to the country palaces of So and Saint-Cloud.

Jules Hardouin-Mansart, having started work in 1678, designed all the buildings in the same style. The facades of the buildings were divided into three tiers. The lower one, modeled on an Italian Renaissance palace-palazzo, is decorated with rustication, the middle one - the largest one - is filled with high arched windows, between which there are columns and pilasters. The upper tier is shortened, it ends with a balustrade (a fence consisting of a number of figured columns connected by a railing) and sculptural groups that create a feeling of magnificent decoration, although all facades have a strict look. The interiors of the palace differ from the facades in the luxury of decoration.

Of great importance in the palace ensemble belongs to the park, designed by Andre Le Nôtre. He abandoned artificial waterfalls and baroque cascades, which symbolized the elemental beginning in nature. The pools of Le Nôtre have a clear geometric shape, with a mirror-smooth surface. Each large alley ends with a reservoir: the main staircase from the terrace of the Grand Palace leads to the fountain of Latona; at the end of the Royal Alley are the fountain of Apollo and the canal. The park is oriented along the west-east axis, so when the sun rises and its rays are reflected in the water, an amazingly beautiful and picturesque play of light appears. The layout of the park is connected with architecture - the alleys are perceived as a continuation of the halls of the palace.

The main idea of ​​the park is to create a special world where everything is subject to strict laws. It is no coincidence that many consider Versailles to be a brilliant expression of the French national character, in which cold reason, will and determination are hidden behind external lightness and impeccable taste. Gradually, classicism - a style addressed to the highest spiritual ideals - began to proclaim political ideals, and art turned from a means of moral education into a means of ideological propaganda.

The subordination of art to politics is clearly felt in the architecture of the Place Vendôme in Paris, built by Jules Hardouin-Mansart in 1685-1701. A small closed quadrangle of the area with cut corners is surrounded by administrative buildings with a single system of decoration. Such isolation is typical for all classic squares of the 17th century. In the center was an equestrian statue of Louis XIV (at the beginning of the 19th century it was replaced by a triumphal column in honor of Napoleon I). The main ideas of the project are the glorification of the monarch and the dream of a perfectly ordered world that lives according to his will.

One of the most significant monumental structures of the 17th century. in Paris - the Cathedral of the House of Invalides (1680-1706), a complex of buildings built by order of Louis XIV for elderly soldiers. The cathedral, created by Jules Hardouin-Mansart, became an important high-altitude point of Paris, its powerful dome significantly changed the panorama of the city. The general appearance of the Cathedral is cold and heavy. Apparently, the master brilliantly knew the architecture of antiquity and the Renaissance, but she was not close to him.

The construction of the main, eastern facade of the Louvre (1667-1673) - the royal palace in Paris - was given such importance that the project for it was chosen by competition. Among the participants were famous masters, but the victory was won by the unknown architect Claude Perrault (1613-1688), since it was his work that embodied the ideas and moods closest to the French: rigor and solemnity, scale and utmost simplicity.

Perrault suggested making the façade huge, fifteen meters longer than the actual length of the building. It was divided into tiers, decorated with a warrant with columns standing in pairs. The central protruding part of the facade is decorated with a portico with a pediment. Such a three-part composition was typical for the facades of palaces and grand villas of the Renaissance. The master managed to show that the old traditions are still a source of beauty.

List of used literature

• 1. "Urban planning code Russian Federation"of December 29, 2004 N 190-FZ (as amended on November 24, 2014) (December 29, 2004)
• 2. Land Code of the Russian Federation of October 25, 2001 No. 136-FZ (as amended on December 28, 2013) // Rossiyskaya Gazeta. - N 211-212. - 30.10.2001.
• 3. SP 32.13330.2012 “SNiP 2.04.03-85 Sewerage. External networks and structures. Updated Edition»
• 4. SP 48.13330.2011 “SNiP 12-01-2004 Organization of construction. Updated Edition»
• 5. Bogovaya I. O Landscape art: a textbook for universities / Bogovaya I. O., Fursova L. M. - M .: Agropromizdat, 1988. - 223 p.
• 6. Vergunov A.P. Landscape design / Vergunov A.P., Denisov M.F., Ozhegov S. Architecture - S. Moscow. 1991. 237 p.
• 7. Gorokhov V. A. Parks of the world: monograph. Gorokhov V. A., Lunts G. B - M., 1985. 328 pages.
• 8. Ratnikov A. Autonomous sewerage systems. Theory and practice / Publisher: AVOK-PRESS 2008. 108 p.
• 9. Yakovlev S. V. Sewerage. Textbook for universities / Yakovlev S. V., Karelin Ya. A., Zhukov A. I., Kolobanov S. K. Izd. 5th, revised. and additional, - Moscow: Stroyizdat, 1975. - 632 p.
• 10. Basin E. V. Russian architectural and construction encyclopedia / Ch. ed. E. V. Basin; resp. ed. volumes D. P. Volkov et al. Vol. 1 1995. - 495 p.