Mark Tullius Cicero is an outstanding ancient Roman orator, politician, philosopher, and writer. His family belonged to the class of horsemen. Born in 106 BC. e., January 3, in the town of Arpinum. So that his sons could get a decent education, their father moved them to Rome when Cicero was 15. The natural talent for eloquence and diligent studies were not in vain: Cicero's oratorical skills did not go unnoticed.
His first public performance took place in 81 or 80 BC. e. and was dedicated to one of the favorites of the dictator Sulla. This could be followed by persecution, so Cicero moved to Athens, where he paid special attention to the study of rhetoric and philosophy. When Sulla died, Cicero returned to Rome, began to act as a defender at trials. In 75 BC. e. he was elected quaestor and sent to Sicily. Being an honest and fair official, he won great prestige among the local population, but this practically did not affect his reputation in Rome.
Cicero became a famous person in 70 BC. e. after participating in a high-profile trial, the so-called. Verres case. Despite all the tricks of his opponents, Cicero brilliantly coped with his mission, and thanks to his speeches, Verres, accused of extortion, had to leave the city. In 69 BC. e. Cicero was elected aedile, after another 3 years - praetor. The first speech of a purely political content belongs to this period. In it, he came out with the support of the law of one of the people's tribunes, who wanted Pompey to receive emergency powers in the war with Mithridates.
Another milestone in political biography Cicero was elected in 63 BC. e. consul. His opponent in the elections was Catiline, who was set up for revolutionary changes and, in many respects, therefore, lost. While in this position, Cicero opposed a bill that proposed distributing land to the poorest citizens and creating a special commission for this purpose. To win the election of 62 BC. Catiline conceived a plot that was successfully uncovered by Cicero. His four speeches in the Senate against a rival are considered a model of the art of eloquence. Catiline fled, and the other conspirators were executed. The influence of Cicero, his fame at that time reached its zenith, he was called the father of the fatherland, but at the same time, according to Plutarch, his penchant for self-praise, the constant recall of merits in revealing the Catiline conspiracy aroused in many citizens hostility towards him and even hatred.
During the so-called. the first triumvirate, Cicero did not succumb to the temptation to take the side of the allies and remained faithful to the republican ideals. One of his opponents, the tribune Clodius, achieved that in 58 BC. e., in April, Cicero went into voluntary exile, his house was burned, and his property was confiscated. At this time, he repeatedly had thoughts of suicide, but soon Pompey ensured that Cicero was returned from exile.
Returning home, Cicero did not actively participate in political life giving preference to literature and legal practice. In 55 BC. e. his dialogue “On the Speaker” appears, a year later he begins to work on the work “On the State”. During civil war the orator tried to act as a conciliator between Caesar and Pompey, but considered the coming of either of them to power to be a deplorable outcome for the state. Having taken the side of Pompey, after the battle of Forsal (48 BC), he did not command his army and moved to Brundisium, where he met with Caesar. Despite the fact that he forgave him, Cicero, not being ready to put up with the dictatorship, delved into writings and translations, and this time turned out to be the most eventful in his creative biography.
In 44 BC. e., after Caesar was killed, Cicero made an attempt to return to big politics, believing that the state still had a chance to return the republic. In the confrontation between Mark Antony and Caesar's heir Octavian, Cicero took the side of the second, seeing him as an easier object for influence. The 14 speeches delivered against Anthony went down in history as the Philippics. After Octavian came to power, Antony managed to include Cicero in the lists of enemies of the people, and on December 7, 43 BC. e. he was killed near Caieta.
The creative legacy of the orator has survived to this day in the form of 58 speeches of judicial and political content, 19 treatises on politics and rhetoric, philosophy, as well as more than 800 letters. All his writings are a valuable source of information about several dramatic pages in the history of Rome.
Cicero) Mark Tullius (106 BC, Arpin - 43 BC, near Caieta, modern Gaeta), Roman orator, writer, politician. Descended from the class of horsemen, he gained influence as a brilliant orator who delivered judicial and political speeches. In 63 BC. e. reached the pinnacle of the Roman political career - became a consul. During the consulate, he contributed to the disclosure of the Catiline conspiracy, for which he received the honorary title "Father of the Fatherland", however, having allowed the conspirators to be executed without trial, he subsequently went into exile. During the civil wars, he defended the republic, with the establishment of Caesar's dictatorship, he retired from politics. After the assassination of Caesar (44 BC), he acted as a political orator with a series of speeches "Philippika" (in memory of the speeches of Demosthenes) against one of the supporters of the dictator Antony, who ordered the death of Cicero: the severed head and hand of the murdered man were put up at the Forum, and Antony's wife, Fulvia, pierced the tongue of the most eloquent of Romans with a pin. The literary heritage of Cicero, in addition to speeches (there are 58 of them preserved), consists of 19 philosophical, rhetorical and political treatises and extensive correspondence (about 800 letters). Cicero was the creator of Roman classical prose, the normalizer of the literary language: it was in his writings that the Latin language became the model on which the writers of subsequent centuries were guided.
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CICERO
Mark Tullius (3.01.106 - 7.12.43 BC) - OE. political activist, orator, writer. Genus. in Arpin (Latium), belonged to the class of horsemen. He first gave speeches in 81 - 80 BC. under Cornelius Sulla on the side of the opposition. Political he began his career after the abdication of Sulla, entering the ruling class as a “new man”, owing everything only to himself, to his oratorical gift (in 76 - a quaestor; in 70 - a victory in a high-profile trial against Sullan Verres; in 66 - a praetor; first political. speech in support of Gnaeus Pompey; in 63 - consul). Political Ideal C. - “mixed state. device ”(state, combining elements of a monarchy, aristocracy and democracy, a model of which Ts. considered the Roman republic of the 3rd - early 2nd centuries BC), supported in times of crisis by“ the first people ”,“ rulers", "appeasers", "guardians and trustees" of the state, combining. philosophy in itself. theory and politics. (oratory) practice; Ts. considered himself a model of such a person. Practical the program of the C. was “the consent of the estates”, “the unanimity of all worthy”, i.e. Senate and equestrian bloc. estates against democracy and applicants for monarchy. power. He managed to rally such a bloc in 63 against the conspiracy of Sergius Catiline, when C. delivered three speeches against the agrarian law of Servilius Rullus and the famous four speeches against Catiline; this C. considered his greatest merit. But the bloc disintegrated as soon as it passed immediately. danger; with the formation of the 1st triumvirate (60) political. the influence of Ts. began to decline, in 58 - 57 he even had to go into exile, and then, against his will, support Gnaeus Pompey and Caesar; in 51 - 50 he is proconsul in Cilicia. In civil war 49 - 47 C. tried in vain to mediate between Pompey and Caesar; After the victory of Caesar, he retired from politics. After the assassination of Caesar in 44 C., foreseeing a new civil. war, tried to leave for Greece, but was persuaded. his friend Mark Junius Brutus, returned to Rome, where he again entered the political. struggle as leader of the Senate and the Republicans. By this time, his 14 speeches belong - "Philippic" against M. Anthony. After the formation of the 2nd triumvirate in 43, the name of Ts. was entered in the proscripts. lists; died among the first victims of the repressions of Antony and Octavian Augustus. From Op. C. save (excluding excerpts) 58 court. and political speeches, 19 treatises (partly in dialogical form) on rhetoric (“On the Orator”, “Brut”, “Orator”, etc.), politics (“On the State”, “On Laws”), practical. philosophy ("Tusculan Conversations", "On Duties", etc.), according to the theoretical. philosophy (“On the limits of good and evil”, “On the nature of the gods”, etc. ) and more than 800 letters (“To Attica”, “To relatives”, etc.), yavl. the most valuable source. information about the era of civil wars in Rome.
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Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero - Roman political figure, an outstanding orator and writer of the 1st c. BC, belonging to the class of riders. Born in Arpin in 106, died in 43 BC. He made his first speeches in 81-80. during the reign of Sulla on the side of the opposition. political career began after the abdication of Sulla from power; thanks to his oratorical gift, he managed to enter the ruling class of the Roman Republic. In 76 Cicero became a quaestor, in 70 he won a high-profile trial against the high-ranking bribe-taker and covetous Verres, in 66 he took the post of praetor and made his first political speech in support of Gnaeus Pompey, and, finally, in 63 became consul. As a politician, Cicero was prone to compromises, his ideal state structure was a "mixed system", combining elements of the monarchy, aristocracy and democracy, the prototype of which he saw in republican Rome of the 3rd - early 2nd centuries. BC The practical program of Cicero was the "consent of the estates", "unanimity of all worthy" (Concordia ordinum), that is, a bloc of the senatorial and equestrian estates against ochlocracy and applicants for monarchical power. He managed to rally such a bloc in 63 to counteract the conspiracy of Sergius Catiline, when Cicero delivered 3 speeches against the agrarian law of Servilius Rullus and the famous 4 speeches against Catiline. Cicero considered this success his greatest service to the republic, but the bloc fell apart as soon as the immediate danger had passed. With the formation of the First Triumvirate in 60, Cicero's political influence began to decline, in 58-57. he even had to retire into exile, and then, against his will, support the alliance of Gnaeus Pompey and Caesar. In 51 - 50 years. he served as proconsul in the province of Cilicia. In the civil war of 49 - 47 years. Cicero tried in vain to mediate between Pompey and Caesar, and after Caesar's victory he withdrew from politics. After the assassination of Caesar in 44, he, foreseeing a new turmoil, tried to leave for Greece, but, persuaded by his friend Mark Junius Brutus, he returned to Rome, where he again entered the political struggle as the leader of the Senate and the Republicans. By this time, his 14 speeches, the so-called "Philippic" against Mark Antony, belong. After the formation of the Second Triumvirate in 43, the name of Cicero, at the insistence of Mark Antony, was included in the proscription lists. Among the first victims of repression, Cicero was killed with a sword while trying to leave Italy. The literary heritage of Cicero includes 58 fully preserved judicial and political speeches, as well as 20 fragments from other speeches, 19 treatises on rhetoric, politics, and more than 800 letters, which are the most valuable source of information about the era of civil wars in Rome. A lot of interesting historical information is contained in his writings devoted to the so-called "practical philosophy": "Tusculan conversations", "On duties", etc. , as well as political studies: "On the State" and "On the Laws". Of the poetic works of Cicero, only relatively small fragments have survived. The works of Cicero and his personality had a significant impact on the creators of European culture.
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Mark Tullius (Marcus Tullius Cicero) (3.I.106 - 7.XII.43 BC) - OE. political activist, orator, writer. Genus. in Arpin (Latium), belonged to the class of horsemen. He first gave speeches in 81-80 BC. e. under Cornelius Sulla on the side of the opposition. Political he began his career after the abdication of Sulla, entering the ruling class as a "new man" (homo novus), owing everything only to himself, to his oratorical gift (in 76 - a questor; in 70 - a victory in a high-profile trial against the Sullan Verres; in 66 - a praetor; first political speech in support of Gnaeus Pompey; in 63 - consul). Political the ideal of Ts. is a “mixed state structure” (a state that combines elements of a monarchy, aristocracy and democracy, a model of which Ts. considered the Roman republic of the 3rd - early 2nd centuries BC), supported in the era crisis "the first people", "rulers", "appeasers", "guardians and trustees" of the state-va, combining philosophy. theory and politics. (oratory) practice; Ts. considered himself a model of such a person. Practical program C. was the "consent of the estates", "unanimity of all worthy" (Concordia ordinum), ie, the bloc of the Senate and equestrians. estates against democracy and applicants for monarchy. power. He managed to rally such a bloc in 63 against the conspiracy of Sergius Catiline, when C. delivered three speeches against the agrarian law of Servilius Rullus and the famous four speeches against Catiline; this C. considered his greatest merit. But the bloc disintegrated as soon as the immediate danger had passed; with the formation of the 1st triumvirate (60) political. the influence of Ts. began to decline, in 58-57 he even had to go into exile, and then, against his will, support Gnaeus Pompey and Caesar; in 51-50 he is proconsul in Cilicia. In civil war 49-47 C. tried in vain to mediate between Pompey and Caesar; After the victory of Caesar, he retired from politics. After the assassination of Caesar in 44 C., foreseeing a new civil. war, tried to leave for Greece, but, persuaded by his friend Mark Junius Brutus, returned to Rome, where he again entered the political. struggle as leader of the Senate and the Republicans. His 14 speeches belong to this time - "Philippic" against M. Anthony. After the formation of the 2nd triumvirate in 43, the name of Ts. was entered in the proscription lists; died among the first victims of the repressions of Antony and Octavian Augustus. From Op. C. preserved (not counting fragments) 58 judicial and political. speeches, 19 treatises (partly in dialogic form) on rhetoric ("On the Orator", "Brut", "Orator", etc.), politics ("On the State", "On Laws"), practical. philosophy ("Tusculan Conversations", "On Duties", etc. ), according to the theoretical philosophy ("On the limits of good and evil", "On the nature of the gods", etc.) and more than 800 letters ("To Attica", "To relatives", etc.), which are the most valuable source of information about the era of civil. wars in Rome. Cit.: Scripta quae manserunt omnia. Recognovit C. P. W. Müller, Bd 1-10, Lpz., 1893-1923; (separate works - in new editions in the series "Collection Bud?" and "Loeb classical library"); in Russian trans.: Speeches, (trans.) V. Gorenshtein, vol. 1-2, M., 1962; Full coll. speeches, (translated under the editorship of F. Zelinsky), v. 1, St. Petersburg, 1901; Dialogues "On the state-ve", "On laws", trans. V. Gorenstein, M., 1966; Letters, trans. and comments by V. Gorenstein, (vol.) 1-3, M.-L., 1949-51; Three treatises on oratory, trans. ed. M. Gasparova, M., 1972. Lit .: Cicero. Sat. articles, (under the editorship of F. Petrovsky), M., 1958; Cicero. 2000 years since death. Sat. articles, M., 1959; Utchenko S. L., Cicero and his time, M., 1972; Zelinsky R. P., Cicero, in the book: Brockhaus-Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary, vol. 75, St. Petersburg, 1903; Boissier G., Cicero and his friends, M., 1914; Zielinsky Th., Cicero im Wandel der Jahrhunderte, 3 Aufl., Lpz.-B., 1912; Kumaniecki K., Cyceron i jego wsp?lczesni, (Warsz.), 1959; Bächner, K., Cicero and Wiesbaden, 1962 (Studien zur rämischen Literatur, Bd 2); Maffii M., Cic?ron et son drama politique, (P., 1961); Michel A., Les rapports de la rh?torique et de la philosophie dans l´oeuvre de Cic?ron, P., 1960; Smith R. E., Cicero the statesman, Camb., 1966. M. L. Gasparov. Moscow.
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Cicero
(lat. Cicero) Mark Tullius, b. in 106 BC e. in Arpin (Samnium), killed in 43 BC. e. near Formia, Rome. orator, politician activist and writer. Ts. came from the estate of horsemen, arrived quite early in Rome, where he received an excellent education, especially in rhetoric, philosophy, and law. Even under Sulla, he acted as a speaker in the processes with the political. background (the first surviving speech for Quinctius–81 BC), then in order to improve his education in 79–77 BC. e. made a trip to Greece (in Athens he struck up friendly relations with Atticus, in Rhodes he studied with Molon). His oratorical successes cleared the way for him to political. activities, therefore, despite the resistance of the nobility to the “new man” (homo po vus), he was elected to states, posts at the age of minimum permission. for their occupation: in 75 he became a quaestor in Sicily, in 69 a curule aedile, in 66 a praetor, in 63 BC. e. - Consul. During his consulship Ts. achieved the largest political. triumph through the suppression of the Catalina conspiracy. The allegedly illegal execution of the leaders of the conspiracy subsequently played a role in the fate of C. himself. At the suggestion of Clodius in 58 BC. e. he was expelled and, although a year later he got the opportunity to return with honor, his political. influence suffered. In subsequent years, he wrote his most important works on the rhetoric and philosophy of the state, from 51 he took control of Prov. Cilicia. At the beginning of the civil war, C., after unsuccessful attempts at reconciliation, joined Pompey, but adhered to a moderate policy and in 47 BC. e. was forgiven by Caesar. Subsequent years of forced political inactivity gave C. the opportunity to come to grips with philosophical writings (46-44 BC). After the assassination of Caesar, he once again spoke at the political. arena and tried to restore the former republican order. As the leader of the Senate party in 14 philippics (named in imitation of the speeches of Demosthenes), C. energetically attacked Antony, who, after the formation of the Second Triumvirate, achieved the inclusion of C. in the proscription lists; 7. 12. 43 BC e. Ts. was killed. Lit. heritage C. covers rhetoric., philosophical writings, speeches and letters. Rhetoric and philosophical writings C. published during his lifetime by his friend Atticus, speeches - by the freedman Tiron, who put in order the legacy of C. and prepared for publication part of his correspondence. Of the speeches of C. 57, they have been completely preserved (judicial, senatorial and speeches to the people), about the same number have been lost. In his early speeches, in which he competed with Hortensius, C. leans towards an Asianist manner, but already in speeches against Verres (70 BC) e.) is manifested by his own. style; it is characterized by the absence of foreign words and vulgarisms, abundant, but not excessive use of rhetoric. decorations, highlighting large, distinct in logical. and linguistically and rhythmically formalized. periods, sovereign restraint, application of all kinds of style, according to need; Demosthenes was his model.
Since the trial against Verres, Z. was considered unsurpassed. master of rome eloquence. He reworked his speeches for publications other than directly judicial and political ones, which contributed to the spread of his fame as an orator. From his rhetoric essays great importance First of all, they have 3 books: “On the Orator” (55 BC), in which C. draws an ideal image of a comprehensively educated orator-philosopher, “Brutus” (46 BC), the history of Rome. eloquence, "The Orator" (46 BC), where C. develops the question of the best style and theoretically substantiates his own. ideal. To the philosophical works of Ts. turned only during times of compulsion. political inactivity. In the early (56-51 BC) works on philosophy - “On the State” (only fragments survived) and “On the Laws” (not completed), Ts., being a supporter of the fundamental philosophical works of Plato, paints a picture of an exemplary state with the best legislation implemented. in Rome. constitution (a combination of the consulate, the senate, the national assembly), at the same time ideologically justifies the privileges of the nobility. Political and personal adversity (Caesar's victory, the premature death of his beloved daughter Tullia) prompted Ts. to more intensive philosophical studies than before, and the decision was ripe in him to state in lat. lang. the whole Greek philosophy to make it available to his compatriots in Rome. This plan was realized in 46-44 BC. e. (“On the limits of Good and Evil”, “Tusculan conversations”, “On the nature of the gods”, “On duties”). Without undertaking independent research, he selected in Greek. philosophy of the theory, which seemed to him reasonable and useful (especially the works of the academicians Philo of Larissa and Antiochus of Ascalon, as well as the Stoic Posidonius), and expounded them in a popular form (dialogues). In the extensive correspondence of Ts., 4 collections of letters have been preserved, systematized by addressees, thanks to which we can get acquainted with his personal thoughts and feelings. In addition, these letters are an invaluable source on social, political. and cultural and historical. relationships of that time. However, the main merit C. does not belong to the sphere of politics, as he himself believed. Without understanding the history situation, C. sought to defend the dominance of the nobility (he himself did not belong to it), the threat to which was created from within by corruption, and from the outside by the demands of the popular; the lack of a firm position in the struggle for power led him to political. crash. In comparison with this, the significance of C. in the sphere of language and liters is underestimated. Thanks to his speeches, as well as rhetoric. and philosophical writings C. became the creator of the classic. lag. arts, prose, which in subsequent times was considered exemplary. His philosophical works introduced the Greek. philosophy not only of contemporaries, but also of descendants in the Middle Ages and modern times. Deep conviction. in the Greek meaning. culture to educate a person, C. used the word "humanitas" in the sense of "education", implying that one can become a person only through education. The influence of C. was already extremely great in antiquity. He invariably occupied the most important place in that historical. the legacy that antiquity left to the Romans. 120 years after the death of C. Quintilian laid the foundation for "Ciceronism", in which C.'s speeches were proclaimed a model, and the ideal of style and education was persistently promoted. Pretty soon, the value of C. was appreciated by the first Christians, such as Lactantius, who, as a result of imitation of Rome. the author was called the Christian C. Jerome reproached himself for being an adherent of the C. (“Ciceronianus”), and not of Christ (“Christianus”). Augustine attributed his acquaintance with the Ciceronian dialogue "Hortensius" (lost) to the decisive events of his life. Petrarch, delight. an admirer of Ts., contributed a lot to the final victory of Ciceronism, so that imitation of the style of Ts., which accompanied the study of his works, became the goal of humanism. During the period of neo-humanism of the 18th century, when the Greek. original works, C. lost its advantages, position in the field of influence of ancient culture.
rice. Cicero (portrait from the early imperial era, Florence).
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Cicero Mark Tullius (Marcus Tullius Cicero) (3.1.106 BC, Arpinum, - 7.12.43 BC, near Caieta, modern Gaeta), ancient Roman politician, orator, writer. From the class of horsemen (See Horsemen) .
He entered political life as a "new man", owing everything only to himself, to his oratorical gift. First performed in 81-80 BC. e. with opposition to Sulla's dictatorship (See Sulla) ;
his first great success was his participation in 70 in a high-profile trial against the Sullan Verres; he delivered his first political speech in 66 in support of H. Pompey (See Pompey). The pinnacle of C.'s success was the consulate in 63 (his discovery of the Catiline conspiracy (See Catiline) ,
leading role in the Senate). With the formation of the 1st Triumvirate a (60), the influence of C. falls, in 58-57 he even had to go into exile, then support G. Pompey and Caesar (See Caesar) in 56-50; after their rupture (in 49), C. tried during the civil war 49-47 to act as a conciliator; with the victory of Caesar (at 47) he moved away from politics. Only after the assassination of Caesar in 44 C., having overcome his hesitation, did he again enter the political struggle as the leader of the Senate and the Republicans. His 14 speeches belong to this time - the "philippic" against M. Anthony (See Antony). In 43, when the senate was defeated in the fight against the 2nd triumvirate (M. Antony, Octavian Augustus, Lepidus) ,
Z.'s name was entered on the proscription lists; died among the first victims of the repressions of Antony and Octavian Augustus. The political ideal of C. is a “mixed state system” (a state combining elements of a monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, the model of which C. considered the Roman Republic of the 3rd - early 2nd centuries BC), supported by “the consent of the estates”, “unanimity of all worthy” (i.e., such a bloc of the senatorial and equestrian estates against democracy and applicants for monarchical power, which rallied the C. against the Catiline conspiracy). The human ideal of C. is “the first man of the republic”, “appeaser”, “guardian and trustee” in times of crisis, combining Greek philosophical theory and Roman political (oratory) practice. Ts. considered himself a model of such a figure. The philosophical ideal of C. is a combination of theoretical skepticism, which does not know the truth, allowing only probability, with practical stoicism, which strictly follows moral duty, which coincides with the public good and world law. The oratorical ideal of C. is “abundance”, the conscious possession of all means capable of both interest, and convince, and captivate the listener; these means are formed in three styles - high, medium and simple. Each style has its own degree of purity of vocabulary (freedom from archaisms, vulgarisms, etc.) and harmony of syntax (rhetorical periods). Thanks to the development of these tools, Ts. became one of the founders and classics of the Latin literary language. From the writings of Ts. survived (not counting fragments) 58 speeches - political (against Catiline, Anthony, etc.) and mainly judicial; 19 treatises (partly in a dialogic form) on rhetoric, politics (“On the State”, “On Laws”), practical philosophy (“Tusculan Conversations”, “On Duties”, etc.), theoretical philosophy (“On the Limits of Good and Evil ”, “On the nature of the gods”, etc.); over 800 letters - an important psychological document, a monument to the Latin spoken language and a source of information about the era of civil wars in Rome. Op. in Russian transl.: Fav. soch., M., 1975; Speeches, trans. V. Gorenstein, vol. 1-2, M., 1962; Complete collection of speeches, trans. ed. F. Zelinsky, vol. 1, St. Petersburg, 1901; Dialogues. About the state. About laws, M., 1966; About old age. About friendship. About duties, trans. V. Gorenstein, M., 1975; Letters, trans. and comments by V. Gorenstein, vol. 1-3, M.-L., 1949-1951; Three treatises on oratory, trans. ed. M. Gasparova, M., 1972. Lit.: Utchenko S. L., Cicero and his time, M., 1972; Cicero. Sat. articles [ed. F. Petrovsky], M., 1958; Cicero. 2000 years since death. Sat. articles, M., 1959; Boissier G., Cicero and his friends, trans. from French, Moscow, 1914; Zielinski Th., Cicero im Wandel der Jahrhunderte, 3 Aufl., Lpz. - B., 1912; Kumaniecki K., Cyceron i jego współczesni, 1959; Maffii M., Ciceron et son drame politique, P., 1961; Smith R. E., Cicero the statesman, Camb., 1966. M. L. Gasparov.
Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .
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- (Cicero) Mark Thulius (106 43 BC) Rome. orator and statesman, rhetoric theorist, classic lat. artistic and philosophical. prose. As a philosopher, he was formed under the influence of the ideas of the syncretic philosophy of Hellenism, having been influenced by ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia
CICERO- TSICERO (Cicero) Mark Tullius (106 ^ 43 BC), Roman statesman, orator and writer, who first made the Latin language a full-fledged means of expressing philosophical ideas. Not being an original thinker, the founder of the philosophical ... ancient philosophy
CICERO Dictionary-reference book on Ancient Greece and Rome, on mythology
CICERO- Mark Tullius (106 43. BC) The "new man" from Arpina, Cicero was educated in Rome and Athens. He quickly became the greatest orator of his time. As consul, he crushed the Catiline conspiracy, and it was the best time in his political ... ... List of ancient Greek names
I. Cicero, Mark Tullius; Cicero, Marcus Tullius, 106 43 BC e., Roman orator, philosopher, politician. Born at Arpin in Latium, he came from a wealthy equestrian family. Together with his younger brother Quintus (see here below Quintus Tullius ... ... Ancient writers
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Cicero- Cicero. CICERO (Cicero) Mark Tullius (106 43 BC), Roman orator and writer. Supporter of the republican system. Of the writings, 58 judicial and political speeches, 19 treatises on rhetoric, politics, philosophy, and more than 800 letters have been preserved. ... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary
- (Marcus Tullius Cicero) Cicero Marcus Tullius (Marcus Tullius Cicero) (106 43 BC) Roman politician, orator, philosopher, writer. Originally from Arpina. Educated in Rome and Athens. Pretty quickly became the greatest orator of his ... ... Consolidated encyclopedia of aphorisms
- (Cicero) Mark Tullius (106 43 BC) Roman politician, philosopher, orator. Roman aedile (69), praetor (66), consul (63). Killed by political opponents. Main works: 'Tusculan conversations' in 5 books, 'On the State' (54 51), 'On Laws' (52), ... ... History of Philosophy: Encyclopedia
- (Cicero) Mark Tullius (106 43 BC) Roman politician, philosopher, orator. Roman aedile (69), praetor (66), consul (63). Killed by political opponents. Main works: "Tusculan Conversations" in 5 books, "On the State" (54 51), "On Laws" (52), ... ... The latest philosophical dictionary
MARK TULLIUS (Marcus Tullius Cicero) (106-43 BC), Roman orator and philosopher. MARK TULLIUS CICERO LIFE Cicero was born in Arpina, a small town about 100 km east of Rome, on January 3, 106 BC, into a wealthy family of a local rider. ... ... Collier Encyclopedia
Mark Tullius Cicero is an outstanding ancient Roman orator, politician, philosopher, and writer. His family belonged to the class of horsemen. Born in 106 BC. e., January 3, in the town of Arpinum. So that his sons could get a decent education, their father moved them to Rome when Cicero was 15. The natural talent for eloquence and diligent studies were not in vain: Cicero's oratorical skills did not go unnoticed.
His first public performance took place in 81 or 80 BC. e. and was dedicated to one of the favorites of the dictator Sulla. This could be followed by persecution, so Cicero moved to Athens, where he paid special attention to the study of rhetoric and philosophy. When Sulla died, Cicero returned to Rome, began to act as a defender at trials. In 75 BC. e. he was elected quaestor and sent to Sicily. Being an honest and fair official, he won great prestige among the local population, but this practically did not affect his reputation in Rome.
Cicero became a famous person in 70 BC. e. after participating in a high-profile trial, the so-called. Verres case. Despite all the tricks of his opponents, Cicero brilliantly coped with his mission, and thanks to his speeches, Verres, accused of extortion, had to leave the city. In 69 BC. e. Cicero was elected aedile, after another 3 years - praetor. The first speech of a purely political content belongs to this period. In it, he came out with the support of the law of one of the people's tribunes, who wanted Pompey to receive emergency powers in the war with Mithridates.
Another milestone in the political biography of Cicero was his election in 63 BC. e. consul. His opponent in the elections was Catiline, who was set up for revolutionary changes and, in many respects, therefore, lost. While in this position, Cicero opposed a bill that proposed distributing land to the poorest citizens and creating a special commission for this purpose. To win the election of 62 BC. Catiline conceived a plot that was successfully uncovered by Cicero. His four speeches in the Senate against a rival are considered a model of the art of eloquence. Catiline fled, and the other conspirators were executed. The influence of Cicero, his fame at that time reached its zenith, he was called the father of the fatherland, but at the same time, according to Plutarch, his penchant for self-praise, the constant recall of merits in revealing the Catiline conspiracy aroused in many citizens hostility towards him and even hatred.
During the so-called. the first triumvirate, Cicero did not succumb to the temptation to take the side of the allies and remained faithful to the republican ideals. One of his opponents, the tribune Clodius, achieved that in 58 BC. e., in April, Cicero went into voluntary exile, his house was burned, and his property was confiscated. At this time, he repeatedly had thoughts of suicide, but soon Pompey ensured that Cicero was returned from exile.
Returning home, Cicero did not actively participate in political life, preferring literature and advocacy. In 55 BC. e. his dialogue “On the Speaker” appears, a year later he begins to work on the work “On the State”. During the civil war, the orator tried to act as a conciliator between Caesar and Pompey, but he considered the coming of either of them to power to be a deplorable outcome for the state. Having taken the side of Pompey, after the battle of Forsal (48 BC), he did not command his army and moved to Brundisium, where he met with Caesar. Despite the fact that he forgave him, Cicero, not being ready to put up with the dictatorship, delved into writings and translations, and this time turned out to be the most eventful in his creative biography.
In 44 BC. e., after Caesar was killed, Cicero made an attempt to return to big politics, believing that the state still had a chance to return the republic. In the confrontation between Mark Antony and Caesar's heir Octavian, Cicero took the side of the second, seeing him as an easier object for influence. The 14 speeches delivered against Anthony went down in history as the Philippics. After Octavian came to power, Antony managed to include Cicero in the lists of enemies of the people, and on December 7, 43 BC. e. he was killed near Caieta.
The creative legacy of the orator has survived to this day in the form of 58 speeches of judicial and political content, 19 treatises on politics and rhetoric, philosophy, as well as more than 800 letters. All his writings are a valuable source of information about several dramatic pages in the history of Rome.
CICERO (cicero) Mark Tullius (106-43 BC), Roman politician, orator and writer. Supporter of the republican system. Of the writings, 58 judicial and political speeches, 19 treatises on rhetoric, politics, philosophy, and more than 800 letters have been preserved. The writings of Cicero are a source of information about the era of civil wars in Rome.
CICERO Mark Tullius(Cicero Marcus Tullius) (January 3, 106, Arpina - December 7, 43 BC, near Caieta, now Gaeta), Roman orator, theorist of eloquence and philosopher, statesman, poet, writer and translator. The surviving heritage consists of speeches, treatises on the theory of eloquence, philosophical writings, letters and poetic passages.
Biographical information
A native of the town of Arpina (120 km southeast of Rome) from a family of horsemen, Cicero has been living in Rome since 90, studying eloquence with the jurist Mucius Scaevola Augur. In 76 he is elected quaestor and performs magisterial duties in the province of Sicily. As a quaestor, having completed his magistracy, he becomes a member of the Senate and goes through all the stages of his Senate career: at 69 - aedile, 66 - praetor, 63 - consul. As a consul, he suppressed the anti-Senate conspiracy of Catiline, having received the honorary title of Father of the Fatherland in the form of recognition of his merits (for the first time in the history of Rome, he was awarded not for military exploits). In 50-51 - governor of the province of Cilicia in Asia Minor.
Starting at 81 and throughout his life, he delivered political and legal speeches with unfailing success, gaining a reputation as the greatest orator of his time. The most famous speeches can be named: “In defense of Roscius of Ameria” (80), speeches against Verres (70), “In defense of the poet Archia” (62), four speeches against Catiline (63), “On the answer haruspices", "On the consular provinces", in defense of Sestius (all three - 56), thirteen speeches against Mark Anthony (the so-called Philippics) - 44 and 43.
Since the mid 50s. Cicero is increasingly immersed in studies of the theory of state and law and the theory of eloquence: "On the State" (53), "On the Orator" (52), "On the Laws" (52). After the civil war of 49-47 (Cicero joined the Senate party of Gnaeus Pompey) and the establishment of the dictatorship of Caesar, Cicero until the end of 44 lives mainly outside of Rome in his rural villas. These years are characterized by a special rise in Cicero's creative activity. In addition to continuing work on the theory and history of eloquence ("Brutus", "Orator", "On the best form of orators", all three - 46), he creates the main works on philosophy, among which the most important and famous are "Hortensius" (45 BC). ; preserved in numerous extracts and fragments), "Teachings of Academicians" and "Tusculan Conversations" (all - 45); By 44, two works of a special genre belong - “Cato, or On Old Age” and “Lelius, or On Friendship”, where Cicero created idealized and bordering on the verge of artistic images of the great Romans of the previous century who were especially close to him spiritually - Cato Censorius, Scipio Emilian, Gaia Lelia.
In March 44 was killed; in December, Cicero returns to Rome to try to convince the Senate to protect the republican system from the heirs of Caesar's dictatorship - the triumvirs Octavian, Antony and Lepidus. His speeches and actions were unsuccessful. At the insistence of Antony, his name was included in the proscription lists, and on December 7, 43, Cicero was killed.
The main problems of creativity
Origin from a small Italian municipality, where the Tullian family was rooted from time immemorial, was the biographical basis for the doctrine of “two homelands” developed by Cicero in the treatises “On the Orator” (I, 44) and “On the Laws” (II, 5): every Roman citizen has two homelands - by place of birth and by citizenship, and "the homeland that gave birth to us is no less dear to us than the one that accepted us." Here, a fundamental fact of the history and culture of the ancient world was reflected: no matter how extensive the later state formations, monarchies or empires, the socially and psychologically real starting cell of social life remained the city-state that continued to live in their composition - the civil community (“On Duties” I, 53). Therefore, the Republic of Rome, which by the time of Cicero covered vast territories, was not exhausted for him by its military-political and state-legal content. He saw in it a form of life, an intensely experienced immediate value, and considered its basis the solidarity of citizens, the ability of everyone, having understood the interests of the community and the state, to act in accordance with them. The whole point was to correctly explain these interests to them, prove and convince them with the power of words - eloquence was for Cicero a form of spiritual self-realization, a guarantee of the social dignity of a citizen, the political and spiritual greatness of Rome (Brutus, 1-2; 7).
Two paths led to the heights of eloquence. One consisted in serving the state and its interests with a word on the basis of disinterested devotion to them, civic prowess (virtus) and extensive knowledge of politics, law, philosophy (On finding material I, 2; On the orator III, 76); the other way was to master the formal techniques that allowed the orator to convince any audience to take the decision he needed (On finding material I, 2-5; On the speaker 158; speech in defense of Cluentius 139); the art of this latter kind was denoted in Rome by the Greek term rhetoric. Cicero's desire to combine in the training of an orator, as in any training in general, a high spiritual content with practical techniques provided him with an important place in the theory and history of pedagogy. However, in the specific conditions of Ancient Rome, both of these sides of the matter became less and less compatible: the crisis of the republic in the 1st century, which led to its replacement by an empire, consisted precisely in the fact that its political practice more and more clearly turned out to be oriented towards the interests of only the ruling elite of the city of Rome. and came into more and more acute conflict with the interests of the development of the state as a whole and with its conservative system of values. The moral perspective, on the one hand, and the provision of immediate interests, whether it be state leadership, a client in court, or one's own, on the other, were in constant and deepening contradiction, and the unity of virtus and political - even more widely: life - practice was increasingly revealed as a feature not of the real, but of the ideal Rome, as its artistic and philosophical image.
All the key moments of the activity of Cicero and his work, as well as the perception of him by subsequent centuries, are associated with this contradiction.
The moral code of the Roman Republic was based on conservative fidelity to the traditions of the community, on legality and right, and respect for the success achieved on their basis. Cicero strove to be faithful to this system of norms, and as a statesman and orator, he repeatedly followed it. But faithful to the code of the senatorial nobility, who more and more clearly sought - and with great success - to use this code in their favor, Cicero just as often turned to purely rhetorical devices and built speeches in defense of not moral standards, but benefits: see agreement to speak two years before Catiline’s conspiracy in his own defense, speech in defense of the undeniably criminal Gaius Rabiria or Annius Milo, etc. This inconsistency was blamed on him and considered as his fundamental feature by Renaissance humanists and learned historians of the 19th century (T. Mommsen and his school).
Against the background of the practical activities of a politician and a judicial orator in Cicero, the need to overcome this fundamental contradiction lived and grew. One of the ways was for Cicero to constantly enrich his theory of eloquence with Greek philosophy, and the Roman tradition and system of values in general - with the spiritual experience of Hellas. He lived in Greece three times for a long time, translated a lot from Greek, constantly refers to Greek thinkers, calls him “our deity” (Letters to Atticus IV, 16), sees the dignity of the Roman magistrate in his ability to be guided in his activities by the practical interests of the Senate Republic, but in the same time and philosophy (letter to Cato, January 50), “and since the meaning and teaching of all the sciences that show a person the right path in life is contained in the mastery of that wisdom, which the Greeks call philosophy, then it is something and I thought it necessary to state it in Latin” (Tusculan Conversations I, 1). The content of the writings of Cicero in the 40s. become politics and eloquence of a special kind - saturated with philosophy and law, become images of Rome and the Romans of bygone times, summing up in an idealized form the spiritual traditions of Greco-Roman antiquity. During the years of the civil war and dictatorship, this ideological position was finally revealed as a cultural norm independent of life practice (Letters to Atticus IX, 4, 1 and 3; Cato 85; Lelius 99 and 16), but called to live in it and correct it. This side of the thought and activity of Cicero became in the 20th century. the basis in the evaluation and study of his legacy (after the appearance of a collective article about him in the Real Encyclopedia for the Study of Classical Antiquity by Pauli-Wissow (1939) and works based on it.