Marcus Tullius Cicero is an outstanding ancient Roman orator, politician, philosopher, and writer. His family belonged to the class of horsemen. Born in 106 BC. e., January 3, in the town of Arpinum. So that his sons could receive a decent education, their father moved them to Rome when Cicero was 15. The natural talent of eloquence and diligent study were not in vain: Cicero’s oratory skills did not go unnoticed.
His first public appearance took place in 81 or 80 BC. e. and was dedicated to one of the favorites of the dictator Sulla. Persecution could follow, so Cicero moved to Athens, where he paid special attention to the study of rhetoric and philosophy. When Sulla died, Cicero returned to Rome and began to act as a defense attorney at trials. In 75 BC. e. he was elected quaestor and sent to Sicily. Being an honest and fair official, he gained enormous authority among the local population, but this had virtually no effect on his reputation in Rome.
Cicero became a famous person in 70 BC. e. after participating in a high-profile trial, the so-called. Verres case. Despite all the tricks of his opponents, Cicero brilliantly coped with his mission, and thanks to his speeches, Verres, accused of extortion, had to leave the city. In 69 BC. e. Cicero was elected aedile, and 3 years later he was elected praetor. The first speech of purely political content dates back to this period. In it, he supported the law of one of the people's tribunes, who sought to ensure that Pompey received emergency powers in the war with Mithridates.
Another milestone in political biography Cicero was elected in 63 BC. e. consul. His opponent in the elections was Catiline, who was committed to revolutionary changes and, in many ways, was a loser. While in this position, Cicero opposed a bill that proposed distributing land to the poorest citizens and creating a special commission for these purposes. To win the elections of 62 BC,. Catiline hatched a plot that was successfully exposed by Cicero. His four speeches in the Senate against his opponent are considered an example of the art of eloquence. Catiline escaped and the other conspirators were executed. Cicero's influence and his fame at this time reached their apogee, he was called the father of the fatherland, but at the same time, according to Plutarch, his penchant for self-praise and constant recall of his merits in uncovering the Catiline conspiracy aroused hostility towards him and even hatred in many citizens.
During the so-called of the first triumvirate, Cicero did not succumb to the temptation to side with the allies and remained faithful to republican ideals. One of his opponents, tribune Clodius, achieved that in 58 BC. e., in April, Cicero went into voluntary exile, his house was burned and his property was confiscated. At this time, he more than once had thoughts of suicide, but soon Pompey ensured that Cicero was returned from exile.
Returning home, Cicero did not actively participate in political life, giving preference to literature and legal practice. In 55 BC. e. his dialogue “On the Orator” appears, and a year later he begins to work on the work “On the State”. During the civil war, the orator tried to act as a reconciliator between Caesar and Pompey, but he considered the rise of either of them to power to be a disastrous outcome for the state. Having taken the side of Pompey, after the battle of Forsal (48 BC) he did not command his army and moved to Brundisium, where he met with Caesar. Despite the fact that he forgave him, Cicero, not ready to come to terms with the dictatorship, delved into his writings and translations, and this time turned out to be the most intense in his creative biography.
In 44 BC. e., after Caesar was killed, Cicero made an attempt to return to big politics, believing that the state still had a chance to return the republic. In the confrontation between Mark Antony and Caesar's heir Octavian, Cicero sided with the latter, seeing him as an easier target for influence. The 14 speeches made against Anthony went down in history as philippics. After Octavian came to power, Antony managed to include Cicero in the list of enemies of the people, and on December 7, 43 BC. e. he was killed near Caieta.
The creative legacy of the speaker has survived to this day in the form of 58 speeches of judicial and political content, 19 treatises on politics and rhetoric, philosophy, as well as more than 800 letters. All his works are a valuable source of information about several dramatic pages in the history of Rome.
Cicero) Marcus Tullius (106 BC, Arpin - 43 BC, near Caieta, modern Gaeta), Roman orator, writer, politician. He came from the equestrian class and gained influence as a brilliant orator who gave judicial and political speeches. In 63 BC. e. reached the pinnacle of Roman political career - he became consul. During the consulate, he contributed to the discovery of Catiline’s conspiracy, for which he received the honorary title “Father of the Fatherland,” however, having allowed the conspirators to be executed without trial, he subsequently went into exile. During the civil wars he defended the republic, with the establishment of Caesar's dictatorship he retired from politics. After the assassination of Caesar (44 BC), he acted as a political speaker with a cycle of speeches “Philippics” (in memory of the speeches of Demosthenes) against one of the supporters of the dictator Anthony, who ordered the murder of Cicero: the severed head and hand of the murdered man were exhibited at the Forum, and Antony's wife, Fulvia, pierced the tongue of the most eloquent of the Romans with a pin. Cicero's literary heritage, in addition to his speeches (58 of them have survived), consists of 19 philosophical, rhetorical and political treatises and extensive correspondence (about 800 letters). Cicero was the creator of Roman classical prose, a normalizer of literary language: it was in his writings that the Latin language became the model on which writers of subsequent centuries were guided.
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CICERO
Marcus Tullius (01/3/106 - 12/7/43 BC) - ancient Roman. political activist, speaker, writer. Genus. in Arpin (Latium), belonged to the class of horsemen. He first gave speeches in 81 - 80 BC. under Cornelia Sulla on the side of the opposition. Political began his career after the abdication of Sulla, entering the ruling class as a “new man”, owing everything only to himself, his oratorical gift (in 76 - quaestor; in 70 - victory in a high-profile trial against the Sullan Verres; in 66 - praetor; first political speech in support of Gnaeus Pompey; in 63 - consul). Political The ideal of C. is “mixed state. structure" (state, combining elements of monarchy, aristocracy and democracy, the model of which Ts. considered the Roman republic of the 3rd - early 2nd centuries BC), supported in times of crisis by the "first people", " rulers", "pacifiers", "guardians and trustees" of the state, combining. a philosopher in himself. theory and politics (speaking) practice; Ts considered himself an example of such a person. Practical Ts.’s program was “harmony of estates”, “unanimity of all worthy”, i.e. bloc of Senate and equestrian. estates against democracy and pretenders to monarchy. power. He managed to unite such a bloc in 63 against the conspiracy of Sergius Catiline, when C. made three speeches against the agrarian law of Servilius Rull and the famous four speeches against Catiline; Ts considered this his greatest merit. But the block disintegrated as soon as it passed immediately. danger; with the formation of the 1st triumvirate (60) political. C.'s influence began to decline, in 58 - 57 he even had to go into exile, and then, against his will, support Gnaeus Pompey and Caesar; in 51 - 50 he was proconsul in Cilicia. In civil War 49 - 47 C. tried in vain to mediate between Pompey and Caesar; After Caesar's victory, he retired from politics. After the assassination of Caesar in 44 C., anticipating a new civil society. war, tried to leave for Greece, but was convinced. his friend Marcus Junius Brutus, returned to Rome, where he again entered into politics. fight as leader of the Senate and Republicans. His 14 speeches date back to this time - “philippic” against M. Anthony. After the formation of the 2nd triumvirate in 43, Ts.’s name was included in the proscript. lists; died among the first victims of the repressions of Anthony and Octavian Augustus. From op. C. saved. (not counting passages) 58 court. and political speeches, 19 treatises (partly in dialogical form) on rhetoric (“On the Orator”, “Brutus”, “Orator”, etc.), politics (“On the State”, “On the Laws”), practical. philosophy (“Tusculan conversations”, “On responsibilities”, etc.), according to theoretical. philosophy (“On the limits of good and evil”, “On the nature of the gods”, etc. ) and more than 800 letters (“To Atticus”, “To loved ones”, etc.), yavl. the most valuable sources information about the civil era. wars in Rome.
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Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero) – Roman political figure, outstanding orator and writer of the 1st century. BC, belonging to the class of horsemen. Born in Arpin in 106, died in 43 BC. He first gave speeches in 81 - 80. during the reign of Sulla on the side of the opposition. Political career began after Sulla's abdication of power; Thanks to his oratorical gift, he managed to enter the ruling class of the Roman Republic. In 76, Cicero became a quaestor, in 70 he won a high-profile trial against the high-ranking bribe-taker and covetous Verres, in 66 he took the post of praetor and made his first political speech in support of Gnaeus Pompey, and finally, in 63 .became consul. As a politician, Cicero was prone to compromise; his ideal of government was a “mixed system” combining elements of monarchy, aristocracy and democracy, the prototype of which he saw in Republican Rome in the 3rd – early 2nd centuries. BC Cicero’s practical program was the “harmony of the estates”, “unanimity of all worthy” (Concordia ordinum), that is, a bloc of the Senate and equestrian estates against ochlocracy and pretenders to monarchical power. He managed to unite such a bloc in 63 to counteract the conspiracy of Sergius Catiline, when Cicero made 3 speeches against the agrarian law of Servilius Rull and the famous 4 speeches against Catiline. Cicero considered this success his greatest service to the republic, but the bloc disintegrated as soon as the immediate danger had passed. With the formation of the First Triumvirate in 60, Cicero's political influence began to decline; in 58–57. he even had to go into exile, and then, against his will, support the alliance of Gnaeus Pompey and Caesar. In 51 - 50 he served as proconsul in the province of Cilicia. In the civil war 49 - 47. Cicero tried in vain to mediate between Pompey and Caesar, and after Caesar's victory he retired from politics. After the assassination of Caesar in 44, he, foreseeing new unrest, tried to leave for Greece, but, persuaded by his friend Marcus Junius Brutus, he returned to Rome, where he again entered into the political struggle as the leader of the Senate and the Republicans. His 14 speeches, the so-called “philippics” against Mark Antony, date back to this time. After the formation of the Second Triumvirate in 43, the name of Cicero, at the insistence of Mark Antony, was included in the proscription lists. Among the first victims of repression, Cicero was killed by sword while trying to leave Italy. Cicero's literary heritage includes 58 fully preserved judicial and political speeches, as well as 20 fragments from other speeches, 19 treatises on rhetoric, politics and more than 800 letters, which are a valuable source of information about the era of civil wars in Rome. A lot of interesting historical information is contained in his works devoted to the so-called “practical philosophy”: “Tusculan Conversations”, “On Duties”, etc. , as well as political studies: “On the State” and “On Laws”. Only relatively small fragments have survived of Cicero's poetic works. The works of Cicero and his personality had a significant influence on the creators of European culture.
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CICERO
Marcus Tullius Cicero (3.I.106 - 7.XII.43 BC) - ancient Roman. political activist, speaker, writer. Genus. in Arpin (Latium), belonged to the class of horsemen. He first gave speeches in 81-80 BC. e. under Cornelia Sulla on the side of the opposition. Political began his career after the abdication of Sulla, entering the ruling class as a “new man” (homo novus), owing everything only to himself, his oratorical gift (in 76 - quaestor; in 70 - victory in a high-profile trial against the Sullan Verres; in 66 - praetor; first political speech in support of Gnaeus Pompey; in 63 - consul). Political The ideal of Ts. is a “mixed state structure” (a state combining elements of monarchy, aristocracy and democracy, the model of which Ts. considered the Roman Republic of the 3rd - early 2nd centuries BC), supported in the era crisis by the “first people”, “rulers”, “pacifiers”, “guardians and trustees” of the state, combining philosophy. theory and politics (speaking) practice; Ts considered himself an example of such a person. Practical Ts.'s program was “harmony of estates,” “unanimity of all worthy” (Concordia ordinum), that is, a bloc of the Senate and the equestrians. estates against democracy and pretenders to monarchy. power. He managed to unite such a bloc in 63 against the conspiracy of Sergius Catiline, when C. made three speeches against the agrarian law of Servilius Rull and the famous four speeches against Catiline; Ts considered this his greatest merit. But the bloc disintegrated as soon as the immediate danger had passed; with the formation of the 1st triumvirate (60) political. C.'s influence began to decline, in 58-57 he even had to go into exile, and then against his will support Gnaeus Pompey and Caesar; in 51-50 he was proconsul in Cilicia. In civil War 49-47 C. tried in vain to mediate between Pompey and Caesar; After Caesar's victory, he retired from politics. After the assassination of Caesar in 44 C., anticipating a new civil society. war, tried to leave for Greece, but, persuaded by his friend Marcus Junius Brutus, returned to Rome, where he again entered into politics. fight as leader of the Senate and Republicans. His 14 speeches date back to this time - “philippic” against M. Anthony. After the formation of the 2nd triumvirate in 43, C.’s name was included in the proscription lists; died among the first victims of the repressions of Anthony and Octavian Augustus. From op. 58 judicial and political documents have been preserved (not counting fragments). speeches, 19 treatises (partly in dialogical form) on rhetoric ("On the Orator", "Brutus", "Orator", etc.), politics ("On the State", "On the Laws"), practical. philosophy (“Tusculan Conversations”, “On Duties”, etc. ), according to theoretical philosophy (“On the limits of good and evil”, “On the nature of the gods”, etc.) and more than 800 letters (“To Atticus”, “To loved ones”, etc.), which are the most valuable source of information about the civil era. wars in Rome. Works: Scripta quae manserunt omnia. Recognovit C. P. W. M?ller, Bd 1-10, Lpz., 1893-1923; (separate works - in new editions in the series "Collection Bud?" and "Loeb classical library"); in Russian trans.: Rechi, (trans.) V. Gorenshtein, vol. 1-2, M., 1962; Full collection speeches, (translated under the editorship of F. Zelinsky), vol. 1, St. Petersburg, 1901; Dialogues "On the State", "On Laws", trans. V. Gorenshteina, M., 1966; Letters, trans. and comments by V. Gorenshtein, (vol.) 1-3, M.-L., 1949-51; Three Treatises on Oratory, trans. edited by M. Gasparova, M., 1972. Lit.: Cicero. Sat. articles, (edited by F. Petrovsky), M., 1958; Cicero. 2000 years since death. Sat. articles, M., 1959; Utchenko S. L., Cicero and his time, M., 1972; Zelinsky R. P., Cicero, in the book: Brockhaus-Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary, vol. 75, St. Petersburg, 1903; Boissier G., Cicero and his friends, M., 1914; Zielinsky Th., Cicero im Wandel der Jahrhunderte, 3 Aufl., Lpz.-V., 1912; Kumaniecki K., Cyceron i jego wsp?lczesni, (Warsz.), 1959; B?chner, K., Cicero, Wiesbaden, 1962 (Studien zur r?mischen Literatur, Bd 2); Maffii M., Cic?ron et son drame politique, (P., 1961); Michel A., Les rapports de la rh?torique et de la philosophie dans l´oeuvre de Cic?ron, P., 1960; Smith R. E., Cicero the statesman, Camb., 1966. M. L. Gasparov. Moscow.
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Cicero
(lat. Cicero) Marcus Tullius, b. in 106 BC e. in Arpin (Samnium), killed in 43 BC. e. near Formium, Rome. speaker, politician activist and writer. C. came from the equestrian class and arrived in Rome quite early, where he received an excellent education, especially in rhetoric, philosophy, and law. Even under Sulla, he acted as a speaker in political trials. background (the first surviving speech for Quinctius – 81 BC), then in order to improve his education in 79–77 BC. e. traveled to Greece (in Athens he struck up friendly relations with Atticus, and studied with Molon in Rhodes). His oratorical successes cleared the way for him to become a politician. activities, therefore, despite the resistance of the nobility to the “new man” (homo povus), he was elected to state positions, positions at the age of minimum permission. for their occupation: in 75 he became a quaestor in Sicily, in 69 he became a curule aedile, in 66 he became a praetor, in 63 BC. e. - consul. During his consulate, Ts. achieved the greatest political achievements. triumph thanks to the suppression of the Catalina conspiracy. Allegedly, the illegal execution of the leaders of the conspiracy subsequently played a role in the fate of Ts himself. At the suggestion of Clodius in 58 BC. e. he was expelled and, although a year later he had the opportunity to return with honor, his politician. influence suffered. In subsequent years, he wrote his most important works on rhetoric and philosophy of state, and from 51 he took over the management of the province. Cilicia. At the beginning of the civil war, C., after unsuccessful attempts at reconciliation, sided with Pompey, but adhered to a moderate policy and in 47 BC. e. was forgiven by Caesar. Subsequent years of forced political inactivity gave Ts. the opportunity to seriously engage in philosophical writings (46–44 BC). After the assassination of Caesar, he once again made a political appearance. arena and tried to restore the former republican order. As the leader of the Senate party in 14 Philippics (named in imitation of the speeches of Demosthenes), C. energetically attacked Antony, who, after the formation of the Second Triumvirate, achieved C.'s inclusion in the proscription lists; 7. 12. 43 BC e. Ts. was killed. Lit. Ts.'s legacy includes rhetoric, philosophical works, speeches and letters. Rhetorical and the philosophical works of C. were published during his lifetime by his friend Atticus, speeches by the freedman Tiron, who put C.’s legacy in order and prepared part of his correspondence for publication. Of the speeches, Ts. 57 have been preserved in full (judicial, senate and speeches to the people), approximately the same amount has been lost. In early speeches, in which he competed with Hortensius, C. leans towards the Asian style, but already in speeches against Verres (70 BC. e.) his own is manifested. style; it is characterized by the absence of foreign words and vulgarisms, abundant, but not excessive use of rhetoric. decorations, highlighting large, distinct ones in a logical manner. both linguistically and rhythmically designed. periods, sovereign restraint, the use of all types of style, depending on necessity; Demosthenes served as his model.
Since the trial against Verres, C. was considered unsurpassed. master of Rome eloquence. He revised his speeches for publications, except for directly judicial and political ones, which contributed to the spread of his fame as an orator. From his rhetoric. works of great importance are primarily 3 books: “On the Orator” (55 BC), in which Ts. paints the ideal image of a comprehensively educated orator-philosopher, “Brutus” (46 BC), the history of Rome. eloquence, “Orator” (46 BC), where Ts. develops the question of the best style and theoretically substantiates his own. ideal. Ts. turned to philosophical works only during forced periods. political inactivity. In his early (56–51 BC) works on philosophy - “On the State” (preserved only in fragments) and “On the Laws” (not completed), Ts., being a supporter of the fundamental philosophical works of Plato, paints a picture of an exemplary state with the best legislation, implemented. to Rome constitution (a combination of the consulate, the Senate, the people's assembly), at the same time ideologically justifies the privileges of the nobility. Political and personal adversity (Caesar's victory, the premature death of his beloved daughter Tullia) pushed Ts. to more intense philosophical studies than before, and the decision matured in him to write it down in Latin. language all Greek philosophy in order to make it accessible to his countrymen in Rome. This plan was realized in 46–44 BC. e. (“On the limits of Good and Evil”, “Tusculan conversations”, “On the nature of the gods”, “On duties”). Without undertaking independent research, he selected in Greek. philosophy theories that seemed reasonable and useful to him (especially the works of academicians Philo from Larissa and Antiochus from Ascalon, as well as the Stoic Posidonius), and presented them in popular form (dialogues). In Ts.’s extensive correspondence, 4 collections of letters have been preserved, organized by addressee, through which we can get acquainted with his personal thoughts and feelings. In addition, these letters are an invaluable source of social, political. and cultural-historical. relations of that time. However, the main Ts.'s merit does not relate to the sphere of politics, as he himself believed. Without understanding the historical situation, Ts. sought to defend the dominance of the nobility (to which he himself did not belong), a threat to which was created from within by corruption, and from without by the demands of the popular people; the lack of a firm position in the struggle for power led him to politics. crash. In comparison, the importance of Ts in the sphere of language and literature is underestimated. Thanks to his speeches, as well as rhetoric. and philosophical works Ts. became the creator of the classic. lag arts, prose, which in subsequent times was considered exemplary. His philosophical works introduced him to the Greek. philosophy not only of contemporaries, but also of descendants in the Middle Ages and modern times. Deeply convinced. in the meaning of the Greek. culture for human education, Ts. used the word “humanitas” in the sense of “education,” implying that one can become a person only through education. The influence of Tsar was already extremely great in antiquity. He invariably occupied the most important place in that historical. the legacy that antiquity left to the Romans. 120 years after the death of C. Quintilian laid the foundation for “Ciceronism,” in which C.’s speeches were proclaimed as a model, and the ideal of style and education was persistently promoted. Quite soon, the importance of C. was appreciated by the first Christians, for example Lactantius, who, as a result of imitation of Rome. the author was called Christian C. Jerome reproached himself for being a supporter of C. (“Ciceronianus”), and not Christ (“Christianus”). Augustine considered his acquaintance with Cicero’s dialogue “Hortensius” (lost) to be the decisive events of his life. Petrarch, delight. admirer of Ts., contributed greatly to the final victory of Ciceronism, so that imitation of Ts.’s style, which accompanied the study of his works, became the goal of humanism. During the period of neo-humanism of the 18th century, when the Greek were, as it were, rediscovered. original works, Ts. lost its advantages and position in the area of influence of ancient culture.
rice. Cicero (portrait from the early imperial era, Florence).
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Marcus Tullius Cicero ; January 3 106 BC e. , Arpinum - December 7 43 BC e. , Formia ) - ancient Roman politician Andphilosopher , brilliantspeaker .Marcus Tullius Cicero is an outstanding ancient Roman orator, politician, philosopher, and writer. His family belonged to the class of horsemen. Born in 106 BC. e., January 3, in the town of Arpinum. So that his sons could receive a decent education, their father moved them to Rome when Cicero was 15. The natural talent of eloquence and diligent study were not in vain: Cicero’s oratory skills did not go unnoticed.
His first public appearance took place in 81 or 80 BC. e. and was dedicated to one of the favorites of the dictator Sulla. Persecution could follow, so Cicero moved to Athens, where he paid special attention to the study of rhetoric and philosophy. When Sulla died, Cicero returned to Rome and began to act as a defense attorney at trials. In 75 BC. e. he was elected quaestor and sent to Sicily. Being an honest and fair official, he gained enormous authority among the local population, but this had virtually no effect on his reputation in Rome.
Cicero became a famous person in 70 BC. e. after participating in a high-profile trial, the so-called. Verres case. Despite all the tricks of his opponents, Cicero brilliantly coped with his mission, and thanks to his speeches, Verres, accused of extortion, had to leave the city. In 69 BC. e. Cicero was elected aedile, and 3 years later he was elected praetor. The first speech of purely political content dates back to this period. In it, he supported the law of one of the people's tribunes, who sought to ensure that Pompey received emergency powers in the war with Mithridates.
The next milestone in Cicero's political biography was his election in 63 BC. e. consul. His opponent in the elections was Catiline, who was committed to revolutionary changes and, in many ways, was a loser. While in this position, Cicero opposed a bill that proposed distributing land to the poorest citizens and creating a special commission for these purposes. To win the elections of 62 BC,. Catiline hatched a plot that was successfully exposed by Cicero. His four speeches in the Senate against his opponent are considered an example of the art of eloquence. Catiline escaped and the other conspirators were executed. Cicero's influence and his fame at this time reached their apogee, he was called the father of the fatherland, but at the same time, according to Plutarch, his penchant for self-praise and constant recall of his merits in uncovering the Catiline conspiracy aroused hostility towards him and even hatred in many citizens.
During the so-called of the first triumvirate, Cicero did not succumb to the temptation to side with the allies and remained faithful to republican ideals. One of his opponents, tribune Clodius, achieved that in 58 BC. e., in April, Cicero went into voluntary exile, his house was burned and his property was confiscated. At this time, he more than once had thoughts of suicide, but soon Pompey ensured that Cicero was returned from exile.
Returning home, Cicero did not actively participate in political life, preferring literature and legal practice. In 55 BC. e. his dialogue “On the Orator” appears, and a year later he begins to work on the work “On the State.” During the civil war, the orator tried to act as a reconciliator between Caesar and Pompey, but he considered the rise of either of them to power to be a disastrous outcome for the state. Having taken the side of Pompey, after the battle of Forsal (48 BC) he did not command his army and moved to Brundisium, where he met with Caesar. Despite the fact that he forgave him, Cicero, not ready to come to terms with the dictatorship, delved into his writings and translations, and this time turned out to be the most intense in his creative biography.
In 44 BC. e., after Caesar was killed, Cicero made an attempt to return to big politics, believing that the state still had a chance to return the republic. In the confrontation between Mark Antony and Caesar's heir Octavian, Cicero sided with the latter, seeing him as an easier target for influence. The 14 speeches made against Anthony went down in history as philippics. After Octavian came to power, Antony managed to include Cicero in the list of enemies of the people, and on December 7, 43 BC. e. he was killed near Caieta.
The creative legacy of the speaker has survived to this day in the form of 58 speeches of judicial and political content, 19 treatises on politics and rhetoric, philosophy, as well as more than 800 letters. All his works are a valuable source of information about several dramatic pages in the history of Rome.
Marcus Tullius Cicero, the famous orator of antiquity, personifies, along with Demosthenes, the highest level of oratory.
Cicero lived from 106 to 43 BC. e. He was born in Arpina, southeast of Rome, and came from the equestrian class. Cicero received an excellent education, studied Greek poets, and was interested in Greek literature. In Rome, he studied eloquence from the famous orators Antony and Crassus, listened to and commented on the famous tribune Sulpicius speaking at the forum, and studied the theory of eloquence. The speaker needed to know Roman law, and Cicero studied it from the popular lawyer of that time, Scaevola. Knowing the Greek language well, Cicero became acquainted with Greek philosophy thanks to his closeness with the Epicurean Phaedrus, the Stoic Diodorus and the head of the New Academic school Philo. From him he learned dialectics - the art of argument and argumentation.
Although Cicero did not adhere to a specific philosophical system, in many of his works he expressed views close to Stoicism. From this point of view, in the second part of the treatise “On the State,” he considers the best statesman, who must possess all the qualities of a highly moral person. Only he could improve morals and prevent the death of the state. Cicero's views on the best government system are presented in the first part of this treatise. The author comes to the conclusion that the best political system existed in the Roman Republic before the Gracchi reform, when the monarchy was exercised in the person of two consuls, the power of the aristocracy was represented by the Senate, and democracy was exercised by the people's assembly.
For a better state, Cicero considers it right to establish ancient laws and revive the “custom of the ancestors” (treatise “On Laws”).
Cicero also expresses his protest against tyranny in a number of works in which ethical issues predominate: these are his treatises “On Friendship”, “On Duties”; in the latter he condemns Caesar, directly calling him a tyrant. He wrote treatises “On the Limits of Good and Evil”, “Tusculan Conversations”, “On the Nature of the Gods”. Cicero does not reject or affirm the existence of gods, but at the same time recognizes the need for a state religion; he resolutely rejects all miracles and fortune-telling (treatise “On Fortune-telling”).
Questions of philosophy were of an applied nature for Cicero and were considered by him depending on their practical significance in the field of ethics and politics.
Considering the horsemen to be the “support” of all classes, Cicero did not have a specific political platform. He first sought to gain the favor of the people, and then went over to the side of the optimates and recognized the alliance of horsemen with the nobility and the Senate as the basis of the state.
His political activity can be characterized by the words of his brother Quintus Cicero: “Let you have the confidence that the Senate evaluates you based on how you lived before, and looks at you as a defender of its authority, Roman horsemen and rich people based on your past life They see in you a champion of order and tranquility, but the majority, since your speeches in courts and at meetings showed you to be half-hearted, let them believe that you will act in their interests.”
The first speech that has reached us (81), “In Defense of Quinctius,” about the return of illegally seized property to him, brought Cicero success. In it he adhered to the Asian style, in which his rival Hortensius was famous. He achieved even greater success with his speech “In Defense of Roscius of Ameripus.” Defending Roscius, whom his relatives accused of murdering his own father for selfish purposes, Cicero spoke out against the violence of the Sullan regime, exposing the dark actions of Sulla’s favorite, Cornelius Chrysogonus, with the help of whom the relatives wanted to take possession of the property of the murdered man. Cicero won this trial and achieved popularity among the people with his opposition to the aristocracy.
Fearing reprisals from Sulla, Cicero went to Athens and the island of Rhodes, ostensibly due to the need to study philosophy and oratory more deeply. There he listened to the rhetorician Apollonius Molon, who influenced Cicero's style. From this time on, Cicero began to adhere to the “average” style of eloquence, which occupied the middle between the Asiatic and moderate Attic styles.
A brilliant education, oratorical talent, and a successful start to advocacy gave Cicero access to government positions. The reaction against the aristocracy after the death of Sulla in 78 assisted him in this. He took his first public position as quaestor in Western Sicily in 76. Having gained the trust of the Sicilians through his actions, Cicero defended their interests against the governor of Sicily, propraetor Verres, who, using uncontrolled power, plundered the province. The speeches against Verres had political significance, since in essence Cicero opposed the oligarchy of optimates and defeated them, despite the fact that the judges belonged to the senatorial class and the famous Hortensius was Verres’ defender.
In 66, Cicero was elected praetor; he makes a speech “On the appointment of Gnaeus Pompey as commander” (or “In defense of the law of Manilius”). Cicero supported Manilius's bill to grant unlimited power to fight Mithridates to Gnaeus Pompey, whom he praises immoderately.
This speech, defending the interests of moneyed people and directed against bilitism, was a great success. But this speech ends Cicero’s speeches against the Senate and the optimates.
Meanwhile, the Democratic Party intensified its demands for radical reforms (debt collection, allotment of land to the poor). This met with clear opposition from Cicero, who in his speeches sharply opposed the agrarian bill introduced by the young tribune Rull, on the purchase of land in Italy and the settlement of it by poor citizens.
When Cicero was elected consul in 63, he reinstated the senators and equestrians against the agrarian reforms. In the second agrarian speech, Cicero speaks harshly of representatives of democracy, calling them troublemakers and rebels, threatening that he will make them so meek that they themselves will be surprised. Speaking against the interests of the poor, Cicero stigmatizes their leader Lucius Sergius Catilina, around whom people who suffered from the economic crisis and senate tyranny were grouped. Catiline, like Cicero, put forward his candidacy for consul in 63, but, despite all the efforts of the left wing of the democratic group to get Catiline into consul, he failed due to the opposition of the optimates. Catiline hatched a conspiracy, the purpose of which was an armed uprising and the murder of Cicero. The plans of the conspirators became known to Cicero thanks to well-organized espionage.
In his four speeches against Catiline, Cicero attributes to his opponent all sorts of vices and the most vile goals, such as the desire to set fire to Rome and destroy all honest citizens.
Catiline left Rome and, with a small detachment, surrounded by government troops, died in a battle near Pistoria in 62. The leaders of the radical movement were arrested and, after an illegal trial against them, on the orders of Cicero, they were strangled in prison.
Currying favor with the Senate, Cicero in his speeches promotes the slogan of an alliance of senators and equestrians.
It goes without saying that the reactionary part of the Senate approved of Cicero’s actions in suppressing Catiline’s conspiracy and bestowed on him the title of “Father of the Fatherland.”
The activities of Catiline are tendentiously covered by the Roman historian Sallust. Meanwhile, Cicero himself, in his speech for Murepa (XXV), cites the following remarkable statement of Catiline: “Only he who is himself unhappy can be a faithful intercessor of the unfortunate; but believe, you who have suffered and the disadvantaged, the promises of both the prosperous and the happy... the least timid and the most suffered - that is who should be called as the leader and standard-bearer of the oppressed.”
Cicero's brutal reprisal against Catiline's supporters aroused displeasure among the popular people. With the formation of the first triumvirate, which included Pompey, Caesar and Crassus, Cicero, at the request of the people's tribune Clodius, was forced to go into exile in 58.
In 57, Cicero returned to Rome again, but no longer had the same political influence and was mainly engaged in literary work.
His speeches in defense of the people's tribune Sestius and in defense of Milop date back to this time. At the same time, Cicero wrote the famous treatise “On the Orator”. As proconsul in Cilicia, in Asia Minor (51-50), Cicero gained popularity among the army, especially due to his victory over several mountain tribes. The soldiers proclaimed him emperor (the highest military commander). Upon returning to Rome at the end of 50, Cicero sided with Pompey, but after his defeat at Pharsalus (48), he refused to participate in the struggle and outwardly made peace with Caesar. He took up issues of oratory, publishing the treatises “Orator”, “Brutus”, and popularizing Greek philosophy in the field of practical morality.
After the assassination of Caesar by Brutus (44), Cicero again returned to the ranks of active figures, speaking on the side of the Senate party, supporting Octavian in the fight against Antony. With great harshness and passion, he wrote 14 speeches against Antony, which, in imitation of Demosthenes, are called "Philippines." For them he was included in the proscription list and in 43 BC. e. killed.
Cicero left works on the theory and history of eloquence, philosophical treatises, 774 letters and 58 judicial and political speeches. Among them, as an expression of Cicero’s views on poetry, a special place is occupied by a speech in defense of the Greek poet Archias, who appropriated Roman citizenship to himself. Having exalted Archius as a poet, Cicero recognizes the harmonious combination of natural talent and assiduous, patient work.
Cicero’s literary legacy not only gives a clear idea of his life and work, which is often not always principled and full of compromises, but also draws historical paintings turbulent era of civil war in Rome.
Language and style of Cicero's speeches. For a political and especially a judicial speaker, it was important not so much to truthfully highlight the essence of the case, but to present it in such a way that the judges and the public surrounding the judicial tribunal would believe in its truth. The public's attitude towards the speaker's speech was considered as the voice of the people and could not but put pressure on the decision of the judges. Therefore, the outcome of the case depended almost exclusively on the skill of the orator. Cicero's speeches, although they were structured according to the scheme of traditional ancient rhetoric, also give an idea of the techniques by which he achieved success.
Cicero himself notes in his speeches “an abundance of thoughts and words,” in most cases stemming from the speaker’s desire to divert the judges’ attention from unfavorable facts, focus it only on circumstances useful for the success of the case, and give them the necessary illumination. In this regard, the story was important for the trial, which was supported by tendentious argumentation, often by distortion of witness testimony. Dramatic episodes and images were woven into the story, giving the speeches an artistic form.
In a speech against Verres, Cicero talks about the execution of the Roman citizen Gavius, whom they had no right to punish without trial. They flogged him in the square with rods, and he, without uttering a single groan, only repeated: “I am a Roman citizen!” Outraged by the arbitrariness, Cicero exclaims: “O sweet name of freedom! O exclusive right associated with our citizenship! O tribunician power, which the Roman plebes so much desired and which was finally returned to him! These pathetic exclamations enhanced the drama of the story.
Cicero uses this method of varying style, but rarely. The pathetic tone is replaced by a simple one, the seriousness of the presentation is replaced by a joke, ridicule.
Recognizing that “the speaker should exaggerate the fact,” Cicero in his speeches considers amplification, a technique of exaggeration, to be natural. Thus, in a speech against Catiline, Cicero claims that Catiline was going to set fire to Rome from 12 sides and, patronizing the bandits, destroy all honest people. Cicero was not averse to theatrical techniques, which caused his opponents to accuse him of insincerity and false tearfulness. Wanting to evoke pity for the accused in a speech in defense of Milo, he himself says that “he cannot speak from tears,” and in another case (speech in defense of Flaccus) he picked up the child, the son of Flaccus, and with tears asked the judges to spare his father .
The use of these techniques in accordance with the content of speeches creates a special oratorical style. The liveliness of his speech is acquired through the use of a common language, the absence of archaisms and the rare use of Greek words. Sometimes the speech consists of short simple sentences, sometimes they are replaced by exclamations, rhetorical questions and long periods, in the construction of which Cicero followed Demosthenes. They are divided into parts, usually having a metrical form and a sonorous ending to the period. This gives the impression of rhythmic prose.
Rhetorical works. In theoretical works on eloquence, Cicero summarized the principles, rules and techniques that he followed in his practical activities. His treatises “On the Orator” (55), “Brutus” (46) and “Orator” (46) are known.
The work “On the Orator” in three books represents a dialogue between two famous orators, the predecessors of Cicero-Licinnus Crassus and Mark Antony, representatives of the Senate party. Cicero expresses his views through the mouth of Crassus, who believes that only a well-rounded educated person can be an orator. In such a speaker, Cicero sees a politician, the savior of the state in an alarming time of civil wars.
In the same treatise, Cicero touches on the structure and content of speech, its design. A prominent place is given to language, rhythm and periodicity of speech, its pronunciation, and Cicero refers to the performance of an actor who, through facial expressions and gestures, seeks to influence the soul of the listeners.
In the treatise "Brutus", dedicated to his friend Brutus, Cicero talks about the history of Greek and Roman eloquence, dwelling in more detail on the latter. The content of this work is revealed in its other title, “On Famous Orators.” This treatise gained great importance during the Renaissance. Its goal is to prove the superiority of Roman orators over Greek ones.
Cicero believes that the simplicity of the Greek orator Lysias is not enough - this simplicity must be complemented by the sublimity and power of expression of Demosthenes. Characterizing many orators, he considers himself the outstanding Roman orator.
Finally, in the treatise “The Orator”, Cicero sets out his opinion on the use of different styles depending on the content of the speech, with the aim of convincing listeners, impressing with grace and beauty of speech, and, finally, captivating and exciting with sublimity. Much attention is paid to the periodization of speech; the theory of rhythm is described in detail, especially at the endings of period members.
The works of the speaker that have reached us have exceptional historical and cultural value. Already in the Middle Ages, and especially during the Renaissance, specialists were interested in the rhetorical and philosophical works of Cicero, and according to the latter they became acquainted with the Greek philosophical schools. Humanists especially appreciated Cicero's style.
A brilliant stylist, able to express the slightest shades of thought, Cicero was the creator of that elegant literary language, which was considered a model of Latin prose. During the Enlightenment, Cicero's rationalistic philosophical views influenced Voltaire and Montesquieu, who wrote the treatise The Spirit of the Laws.
Marcus Tullius Cicero
(106-43 BC)
A prominent political figure in Ancient Rome, famous as the most outstanding orator of his era, also known as the original philosopher, Marcus Tullius Cicero was a native of Rome and belonged to the equestrian class. Later, thanks to his outstanding abilities, he managed to move into the upper class of senators. He knew how to find arguments to convince his seemingly most irreconcilable opponents of his rightness. In 70 BC. e. Cicero acted as a prosecutor at the trial of the former governor of Sicily, Verres, who was accused of theft of 40 million sesterces, of which only 3 million could be proven in court. Without waiting for a guilty verdict, Verres voluntarily went into exile in Massilia (Marseille).
In 63 BC. e. Cicero was elected consul. He was a supporter of the union of senators and equestrians (“concord of the estates”), which, in his opinion, could prevent the establishment of a dictatorship by both successful commanders and demagogue politicians who relied on the support of the plebs. Cicero made speeches accusing the patrician Lucius Sergius Catilina, who was sitting in the Senate, his unsuccessful rival in the election of consuls, of conspiring against the republic. He also won over the second consul, a former supporter of Catiline, Gaius Antonius, giving him the governorship of the rich province of Macedonia. Catiline relied on a group of young patricians from impoverished clans and veterans from the army of dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla and planned to seize power, attracting the poorest part of the population of Rome to his side with slogans of debt cancellation and land redistribution. Cicero, with his speeches, provoked Catiline, against whom there was no direct evidence, to flee to his supporters in Etruria, where they formed an army to march on Rome. Thus, Catiline, deciding that his plot had been discovered, decided to make a premature appearance, thereby freeing Cicero’s hands for reprisals against those who supported Catiline in Rome itself. They were immediately arrested and the Senate sentenced them to death, although this was illegal. After all, Roman citizens could be put to death only by decision of the popular assembly. Senator Gaius Julius Caesar spoke about this in his speech. But Cicero, with the support of Marcus Porcius Cato, managed to convince his colleagues that the republic was in danger and that it was necessary to execute the conspirators. After this, the army of Catiline in 62 BC. e. was defeated at the Battle of Pistoria by the army of Guy Antony, and he himself was killed.
In February 58 BC. e. Cicero was appointed proconsul of the province of Cilicia. He turned out to be a very successful governor, showing extraordinary energy and management. Cicero reduced the tax burden, as well as the expenses of cities associated with maintaining city governors and sending embassies to Rome. Compared to his predecessors, he stood out for his selflessness and moderation in everyday life. As Plutarch testifies, “there was no gatekeeper in his house, and not a single person saw Cicero lying idle: with the first rays of the sun he was already standing or walking at the door of his bedroom, greeting visitors.”
During his administration of Cilicia, Cicero managed to acquire laurels as a commander. At first, the province was threatened by a Parthian invasion, but the Parthians, who had crossed the Euphrates, suddenly turned back. Then, with the army assembled to repel the supposed Parthian attack, Cicero began military operations against the mountainous Arab tribes of Aman and won a major victory over them at Issus, where Alexander the Great had once defeated the Persians. Cicero also took possession of the important fortress of Pindenisse in the so-called free Cilicia, which was not subject to the authority of Rome. For these successes, the army proclaimed Cicero emperor, and he thus received the right to triumph. However, due to the outbreak of civil wars, the triumph was never celebrated. 58 speeches of Cicero have been preserved, which are still recognized as unsurpassed examples of oratory.
Cicero also left behind 19 philosophical treatises, including On Duties, On the Orator, On the State, On Laws, On the Limits of Good and Evil, and On the Nature of the Gods. He was a supporter of limiting land ownership, arguing: “Let everyone own as his own what was common by nature, and let him hold on to what he has, without trying to seize more, for by doing so he will violate the laws of human society.” Cicero fought with all his might to preserve the Roman civil community, not realizing that it was already becoming an anachronism in the world empire. He wrote: “The bond between people belonging to the same civil community is especially strong, since fellow citizens are united by the forum, sanctuaries, porticoes, streets, laws, rights and duties, joint decisions, participation in elections, and above all this and habits, friendships and family ties, activities carried out together, and the benefits arising from them.”
Cicero also made a significant contribution to the development of Roman law. In a treatise on duties, he asserted the sacred right of property: “Just as if each member of our body began to think that it could be healthy by absorbing the health of the neighboring member of the body, our whole body would inevitably weaken and perish, so, if each of us seized the property of other people and, in our own interests, took away everything that we could take from each of them, human society and the bonds between people would inevitably be destroyed... And not only by nature, that is, the law of peoples, but also by the laws of peoples, thanks to which the political system is maintained, it is established that for the sake of one’s own benefit one cannot harm one’s neighbor.”
When in 60 BC. e. Power in Rome passed to the first triumvirate consisting of Caesar, Crassus and Pompey, Caesar was sent into exile on charges of illegally executing Roman citizens. He was returned to Rome in 58 BC. e. and made a number of speeches in support of the triumvirs. In 52 BC. e., after the death of Crassus and the beginning of the struggle between Pompey and Caesar, Cicero first tried to reconcile them. When Caesar entered Rome, Cicero left the city, which was regarded as a condemnation of the actions of Caesar, who unleashed civil war. Negotiations between Caesar and Cicero came to nothing. Shortly after Caesar's departure for Spain, Cicero also left Italy and joined Pompey in the Balkans, but had great doubts about his ability to resist Caesar. After Pompey's defeat at Pharsalus and his flight to the island of Lesbos, Cato the Younger, who commanded the surviving Pompeian troops, invited Cicero, as a former consul and emperor, to lead the army. But Cicero, realizing that Pompey’s cause was doomed, refused this honor, for which he was almost killed by Pompey’s son. With Cato's permission, he left the camp at Dyrrhachium and arrived at Patras, where he received a letter from his son-in-law Dolabella, a supporter of Caesar, who reported that Caesar had allowed him to return to Italy. In October 48 BC. e. Cicero landed in Brindisia. A year later he met with Caesar, who allowed him to return to Rome. There Cicero withdrew for a while political activity. In 44 BC. e. he unwisely supported the murderers of Caesar Brutus and Cassius, seeing in them the last hope for the restoration of the Roman Republic. Cicero also had a personal friendship with Brutus. Nevertheless, in the first time after the death of Caesar, Cicero entered into an alliance with Octavian, who at that moment was at enmity with Caesar’s friend Mark Antony. Cicero made several speeches in which he sharply denounced Anthony. He responded by accusing Cicero of killing Roman citizens without trial and inciting the murder of Caesar's supporters. Cicero, in turn, stated that the instigator was Antony himself and described him as a very unsightly person - a scoundrel, a drunkard and a libertine. Cicero declared himself a defender of the fatherland. He hoped to deepen the rift between the Caesarians and then, when they had exhausted their strength in infighting, to try to restore the republic. However, soon Octavian, who had previously admired the speeches of Cicero, and Antony realized that they first had to deal with the main enemy - the killers of Caesar, led by Brutus and Cassius, and it was better to leave their own internecine squabbles for later. After Octavian and Antony made peace and concluded a second triumvirate with the commander Aemilius Lepidus, Cicero was included in the poscriptio lists compiled by the triumvirs and was executed in 43 BC. e. in Rome. He tried to escape by boarding a ship. The slaves were carrying him on a stretcher to the sea when they heard the sound of pursuit. Cicero stuck his head out of the covered stretcher, and it was immediately cut off with a sword. Antony included Cicero in the scripture lists, and neither Octavian nor Lepidus objected.
The English writer Herbert Wells, who admired Cicero, wrote about the last apologist of the Republic: “Only his noble and powerless figure, calling on the completely degraded, vile and cowardly Senate to return to the high ideals of the Republic, stands out among others characters that time". Cicero, like no one else, knew how to convert oratory into political power; he was one of the first in history to comprehend the laws of political art and even developed a theory of how power can be achieved in a democracy and civil society. His tragedy was that he lived in an era when the Roman Republic was already dying under the onslaught of a military dictatorship. Cicero's opponents relied on military force, against which the gift of oratory and the art of political manipulation were powerless. Cicero believed in the uselessness of tyrants and dictators, and believed that society should get rid of them by any means, including violence. In this he was completely opposed to another great Italian, Nicolo Machiavelli, who came into the world sixteen centuries later. But the time in which Cicero lived just required dictators, and in this time there was no place left for Cicero.
Cicero has remained in history as an example of an unsurpassed orator and one of the last defenders of the Roman Republic. But he was even more unable to defend with words what others could not defend with the sword. Descendants assessed the role and significance of Cicero differently. The famous German historian Theodor Mommsen called him a “political hypocrite,” a “coward,” and a “supporter of the party of material interests.” The Polish historian T. Zelinsky wrote about Cicero as a man whose death marked the death of the republic, “and this coincidence - by no means accidental - surrounded his image for his descendants with an aura of not only glory, but also holiness.”
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