Jean Paul Sartre (1905–1980). Jean Paul Sartre is a French existentialist. Sergei Tselukh A play by Jean Paul Sartre

Jean-Paul Charles Aimard Sartre - French philosopher, representative of atheistic existentialism, writer, playwright, essayist, teacher. Laureate Nobel Prize in Literature 1964 (refused the prize).

Jean-Paul Sartre was born in Paris and was the only child in the family. When Jean-Paul was only 15 months old, his father died. The family moved to the parental home in Meudon.

Sartre received his education at the Lyceums of La Rochelle, graduated from the Higher Normal School in Paris with a dissertation in philosophy, and trained at the French Institute in Berlin (1934). He taught philosophy at various lyceums in France (1929-1939 and 1941-1944); since 1944 devoted himself entirely to literary work. While still a student, he met Simone de Beauvoir, who became not only his life partner, but also a like-minded author.

Together with Simone de Beauvoir and Maurice Merleau-Ponty, he founded the magazine New Times. He spoke as a supporter of peace at the Vienna Congress of Nations in Defense of Peace in 1952, in 1953 he was elected a member of the World Peace Council. After repeated threats from French nationalists, they blew up his apartment in the center of Paris.

In 1956, Sartre and the editors of the magazine distanced themselves, unlike Camus, from accepting the idea of ​​French Algeria and supported the desire for independence of the Algerian people. Sartre opposed torture, asserting the freedom of peoples to determine their own destiny.

Defending their position was not safe: Sartre's apartment was blown up twice, and the editorial office was seized five times by nationalist militants.

Sartre actively supported the Cuban revolution of 1959, as did many representatives of the intelligentsia of the Third World. In June 1960 he wrote 16 articles in France entitled "Hurricane for Sugar". During this time, he collaborated with the Cuban news agency Prensa Latina. But then there was a break with Castro in 1971 because of the "Padilla case", when the Cuban poet Padilla was imprisoned for criticizing the Castro regime.

Sartre took an active part in the Russell War Crimes Tribunal in Vietnam. In 1967, the International War Crimes Tribunal held two of its meetings - in Stockholm and in Roskilde, where Sartre delivered his sensational speech on genocide.

Sartre was a participant in the revolution in France in 1968 (one might even say, its symbol: the rebellious students, having captured the Sorbonne, let only Sartre inside), in the post-war years - numerous democratic, Maoist movements and organizations. Participated in protests against the Algerian War, the suppression of the Hungarian uprising of 1956, the Vietnam War, the invasion of American troops into Cuba, the entry of Soviet troops into Prague, and the suppression of dissent in the USSR. Throughout his life, his political positions fluctuated quite strongly, but always remained leftist, and Sartre always defended the rights of a destitute person, that very humiliated "Self-Taught", to quote the novel Nausea.

During another protest, which turned into riots, he was detained, which caused outrage among the students. When Charles de Gaulle found out about this, he ordered the release of Sartre: "France does not imprison Voltaires."

My essays are failing. I didn't say everything I wanted to, nor the way I wanted to. I think the future will refute many of my judgments; I hope some of them will stand the test, but in any case, History is slowly moving towards an understanding of man by man ...

From Sartre's dying conversation with his secretary

Jean-Paul Sartre. Encyclopedias call him a philosopher and writer, but such a definition is not perfect. The philosopher Heidegger considered him more of a writer than a philosopher, but the writer Nabokov, on the contrary, was more of a philosopher than a writer. But everyone, perhaps, would agree with the capacious definition of "thinker". And every thinker is necessarily also to some extent a psychologist, and, as for Sartre, his belonging to psychological science is obvious and indisputable (it just does not stand out so much against the background of his literary and social achievements). The existential direction in psychology and psychotherapy, which has gained immense popularity over the past half century, goes back to his ideas about the nature and purpose of man. And "Essay on the Theory of Emotions", written by Sartre in 1940, is one of the most significant psychological works on this topic.
Most psychologists have not read Sartre. He himself is partly to blame for this - you cannot call his works intelligible. However, his ideas are not so abstract and incomprehensible. There was a time when millions raved about them. And it is quite possible to state them in an accessible form. It is no less interesting to consider what kind of person they came up with.

FAMILY INFLUENCE

Jean Paul Sartre was born on June 21, 1905 in Paris. He was the only child of Jean-Baptiste Sartre, a naval engineer who died of tropical fever when the boy was less than a year old, and Anne-Marie Sartre, née Schweitzer, who came from a family of famous Alsatian scientists and was a cousin of Albert Schweitzer. The boy's grandfather, Professor Charles Schweitzer, a Germanist philologist, founded the Institute of Modern Language in Paris. (If Francis Galton had lived longer, he would certainly have included the example of Sartre in his work Hereditary Genius.)
Subsequently, Sartre recalled: “As a child, I lived with my widowed mother with my grandparents. My grandmother was a Catholic, and my grandfather was a Protestant. At the table, each of them chuckled at the religion of the other. Everything was good-natured: a family tradition. But the child judges ingenuously: from this I concluded that both religions are worthless. It is not surprising that, having acted as one of the founders of the doctrine of existentialism, Sartre developed its atheistic branch.
After graduating from Ecole Normal, Sartre taught philosophy for several years at one of the lyceums in Le Havre. In 1933-1934. trained in Germany, on his return to France was engaged in teaching in Paris.

MEANING IN CREATIVITY

In the late 1930s, Sartre wrote his first major works, including four psychological works on the nature of phenomena and the work of consciousness. While still a teacher at Le Havre, Sartre wrote Nausea, his first and most successful novel, published in 1938. At the same time, his short story The Wall was published in the New French Review. Both works become books of the year in France.
"Nausea" is the diary of Antoine Roquentin, who, while working on the biography of the figure of the eighteenth century, is imbued with the absurdity of existence. Being unable to gain faith, to influence the surrounding reality, Rokenten experiences a feeling of nausea; in the end, the hero comes to the conclusion that if he wants to make his existence meaningful, he must write a novel. Creativity is the only occupation that, according to Sartre at that time, had at least some meaning.
During the Second World War, Sartre, due to a visual defect (he was practically blind in one eye), did not get into the army, but served in the meteorological corps. After the capture of France by the Nazis, he spends some time in a concentration camp for prisoners of war, but already in
In 1941, he was released (what danger could a half-blind meteorologist pose?), and he returned to literary and teaching activities.
The main works of this time were the play “Behind the Locked Door” and the voluminous work “Being and Nothingness”, the success of which allowed Sartre to leave teaching and devote himself entirely to philosophizing.
The play "Behind the Locked Door" is a conversation of three characters in the underworld; the meaning of this conversation boils down to the fact that, in the language of existentialism, existence precedes essence, and the character of a person is formed through the performance of certain actions: a hero-man, in essence, will turn out to be a coward if, at a decisive, “existential” moment, he becomes cowardly. Most people, Sartre believed, perceive themselves as perceived by those around them. As one of the characters in the play remarked: "Hell is others."

TO BE YOURESELF

In Sartre's main work "Being and Nothingness", which became the bible of young French intellectuals, the idea is that there is no consciousness as such, because there is simply no consciousness, "pure consciousness", there is only awareness of the external world, things around us. People are responsible for their actions only to themselves, because every action has a certain value - regardless of whether people are aware of it or not.
In the post-war years, Sartre becomes the recognized leader of the existentialists, who gathered at the "Cafe de Fleur" near the Place Saint-Germain-des-Prés.
The widespread popularity of existentialism was explained by the fact that this philosophy gave great importance freedom. Since, according to Sartre, to be free means to be oneself, insofar as "man is doomed to be free." At the same time, freedom appears as a heavy burden (it is interesting that Fromm wrote Escape from Freedom at the same time). But a person must bear this burden if he is a person. He can give up his freedom, stop being himself, become "like everyone else", but only at the cost of giving up himself as a person.
In the following decade, Sartre worked especially fruitfully. In addition to reviews and critiques, he writes six plays, including what many consider to be his best play, Dirty Hands, a dramatic exploration of the painful compromise required in political action. In the same years, he writes studies of the life and work of Charles Baudelaire and Jean Genet - the experience of applying existentialism to the biographical genre, but in fact an attempt to create a new psychological direction - existential psychoanalysis.

THE OPPONENT OF THE UNCONSCIOUS

Sartre has always had a great interest in psychoanalysis in its traditional sense and its creator, Sigmund Freud (he even wrote a screenplay dedicated to Freud's life). However, even in the works "Essay on the Theory of Emotions" and "Being and Nothingness" he critically rethought the Freudian doctrine of the intrapsychic activity of the individual.
Sartre shared psychoanalytic ideas, according to which human behavior requires deciphering, revealing the meaning of actions, revealing the meaning of any action. Freud's merit was, in his opinion, that the founder of psychoanalysis paid attention to hidden symbolism and created a special method that allows revealing the essence of this symbolism in the context of the doctor-patient relationship.
At the same time, Sartre was critical of Freud's attempts at a psychoanalytic explanation of the functioning of the human psyche through unconscious drives and affective manifestations. Sartre constantly emphasized that a person always knows what he wants and what he achieves, he is quite conscious in this sense (therefore, there is not a single “innocent” child, and even a tantrum, according to Sartre, always rolls consciously). For this reason, he was critical of Freud's idea of ​​the unconscious. In it, he saw another attempt to write off the free (and therefore completely sane) behavior of a person to something independent of a person and thereby relieve him of any responsibility.

AGAINST ALL SOCIALITY

"The Roaring Sixties" is the apogee of Sartre's popularity. Perhaps no thinker has paid as much attention to the criticism of social institutions as Sartre. Any social establishment, according to Sartre, is always an encroachment on a person, any norm is a leveling of the individual, any institution carries in itself inertness and suppression. If we use the title of Sartre's play here, we can express his attitude as follows: social institutions always have “dirty hands”.
Truly human can only be a spontaneous protest against any sociality, and moreover, a one-act, one-time protest, not spilling over into any organized movement, party and not bound by any program and charter. It is no coincidence that Sartre turns out to be one of the idols of the student movement, which protested not only against the "bourgeois" culture, but to a large extent against culture in general. In any case, rebellious motives are quite strong in Sartre's work.
In 1964, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature "for his work, rich in ideas, imbued with the spirit of freedom and the search for truth, which has had a huge impact on our time." Citing that he "does not want to be turned into a public institution", and fearing that the status of a Nobel laureate would only interfere with his radical political activities, Sartre refused the prize.

SINCERE RECOGNITION

"Age of Psychology: Names and Fates" - a collection of scientific and biographical essays on the life path and scientific discoveries of outstanding psychologists. Using a wide palette of facts and hypotheses, the author seeks to show what sources great scientists drew inspiration from, how the vicissitudes of their personal fate influenced the formation of their scientific views. You will learn a lot of interesting things about the life of such remarkable figures as E. Fromm, V. Reich, E. Bern, V.P. Kashchenko, A.R. Luria, I.P. Pavlov, L.S. Vygotsky, L.I. Bozhovich and many others. The book will be of interest to psychologists, students of psychological faculties and anyone interested in the history of psychology.

In May 1968, serious student unrest broke out in Paris, and the 63-year-old thinker decided that the hour had come to overthrow the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie. He was especially inspired by the slogan of the rebellious students - "All power to the imagination!" After all, imagination, according to Sartre, is the most characteristic and most precious feature of human reality. He began his psychological research with the phenomenology of the imagination, an outline of which was published as early as 1936, and ended with it, exploring the world of Flaubert's imagination.
IN last years of life Sartre was almost blind due to glaucoma; he could no longer write and instead gave numerous interviews and discussed political events with friends.
Sartre died on April 15, 1980.
There was no official funeral. Shortly before his death, Sartre himself asked for it. Above all, he valued sincerity, and the pathos of ceremonial obituaries and epitaphs disgusted him. The funeral procession was made up of only relatives of the deceased. However, as the procession moved along the left bank of Paris, past the thinker's favorite places, 50 thousand people spontaneously joined it. This has never happened before or since in the history of the human sciences.
Obituaries, of course, still appeared. Thus, the newspaper Le Monde wrote: "Not a single French intellectual of the twentieth century, not a single Nobel Prize winner, has had such a deep, lasting and comprehensive influence on social thought as Sartre."
And there is nothing to add to this.

© Sergey STEPANOV

Sartre, Jean-Paul (1905-1980), French philosopher, writer, playwright and essayist. Born in Paris on June 21, 1905. He graduated from the Higher Normal School in 1929 and devoted the next ten years to teaching philosophy in various lyceums in France, as well as traveling and studying in Europe. His early works are philosophical studies proper. In 1938 he published his first novel Nausea (La Nausé e), and the following year published a book of short stories called Wall (Le Mur). During World War II, Sartre spent nine months in a POW camp. Became an active member of the Resistance, wrote for underground publications. During the occupation he published his main philosophical work - Being and Nothing (L"Ê tre et le né ant, 1943). His plays were successful flies (Les Mouches, 1943), a development of the Orestes theme, and Behind a locked door (Huis clos, 1944), which takes place in Hell.

A recognized leader of the existentialist movement, Sartre became the most prominent and discussed author in post-war France. Together with Simone de Beauvoir and Maurice Merleau-Ponty, he founded the magazine "New Times" ("Les Temps modernes"). Beginning in 1947, Sartre regularly published separate volumes of his journalistic and literary-critical essays under the title situations (situations). Among his literary works, the most famous are - Roads of freedom (Les chemins de la liberté , 3 vols, 1945-1949); plays Dead without burial (Morts sans sé pulp, 1946), respectful slut (La Putain respectuse, 1946) and Dirty hands (Le Mains sales, 1948).

In the 1950s, Sartre collaborated with the French Communist Party. Sartre condemned the Soviet invasion of Hungary in 1956 and Czechoslovakia in 1968. In the early 1970s, Sartre's consistent radicalism manifested itself in the fact that he became the editor of a Maoist newspaper banned in France, and also took part in several Maoist street demonstrations.

Sartre's late works include Recluses of Altona (Les Sé questré s d "Altona, 1960); philosophical work Criticism dialectical mind (Critique de la raison dialectique, 1960); Words (Les Mots, 1964), the first volume of his autobiography; Trojans (Les Troyannes, 1968), based on the tragedy of Euripides; criticism of Stalinism - Stalin's ghost (Le fantô me de Staline, 1965) and Every family has its black sheep. Gustave Flaubert(1821 - 1857 ) (L "Idiot de la famille, Gustave Flaubert(1821-1857 ), 3 vols, 1971-1972) is a biography and critique of Flaubert based on both a Marxist and a psychological approach. In 1964, Sartre refused the Nobel Prize in Literature, stating that he did not want to question his independence.

French writer, philosopher and essayist, head of French existentialism. The main themes of works of art: loneliness, the search for absolute freedom, the absurdity of being. In 1964, Sartre was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. Jean-Paul Sartre was born on June 21, 1905 in Paris. His father, a naval officer, died when the boy was a little over a year old, and Jean-Paul was raised by his mother.

“When I was seven or eight years old, I lived with my widowed mother with my grandparents. My grandmother was a Catholic, and my grandfather was a Protestant. At the table, each of them laughed at the religion of the other. Everything was good-natured: a family tradition. from this I concluded that both creeds are worthless."

After graduating from the Normal School, Sartre soon began teaching philosophy at one of the lyceums in Le Havre.

In 1929 he met Simone Beauvoir. Beauvoir decided for herself that the destiny of a woman is boredom, while she wanted to experience everything in the world: sex, independence, and professional joy. Rejecting all conventions, she took on the role of the godmother of modern feminism.

He was small, with a belly, blind in one eye. She was distinguished by elegance, dressed either in bright silks or in all black. However, Beauvoir was delighted with the generosity and humor with which Sartre shared his knowledge, and highly appreciated his intelligence.

In 1933-1934, Sartre was a fellow of the French Institute in Berlin, where he plunged into the world of Husserl's phenomenology and got acquainted with the publications of Heidegger. Since then, Sartre has become an adherent of phenomenology, thanks to which he built his edifice of philosophy.

In the last pre-war years, his books Imagination (1936), Imaginary (1939), Sketch of the Theory of Emotions (1940) were published. Literary fame comes to him. Finally, his novel "Nausea" (1938), initially rejected by the publishing house "Gallimard", and the book of stories "The Wall" (1939) were published.

In May 1940, the French front was broken through by a tank armada, and a month and a half later the Third Republic ceased to exist, and Sartre, along with a million compatriots, ended up in a prisoner of war camp. In 1941, Sartre was released from prison for health reasons and ended up in Paris. Here he organized an underground group under the motto "Socialism and Freedom". The name is highly significant: it is the political creed of Sartre, who believed that socialism (as it existed at that time) lacked freedom. The idea of ​​free socialism guided Sartre's actions and thoughts for almost four decades of his life. If you remember this, then you can explain many of his seemingly strange actions.

Sartre's group failed to do anything practically significant, but he completed an ontological treatise and staged the first play, The Flies, on the professional stage. Both the large treatise (more than seven hundred pages) and the short play deal with the same thing, although, of course, with varying degrees of completeness - about "freedom in the situation", which, in fact, is, according to Sartre, the definition of human existence. (existence). Hence the system of his views was called "existentialism".

Sartre explains that his research is aimed at describing human existence. His original interest is not to say what people should be like and what they actually look like. Thus, Sartre argues that everyone must make their own choice of their world. However, there is a problem here: after all, everyone should do the same. The choice is individual, even if one chooses for all people.

In defense of his ideas from the accusation of pessimism, Sartre said that it was wrong to consider his philosophy in this spirit, "for no doctrine is more optimistic, since in it the fate of a person is placed in himself" ("existentialism is humanism").

Ten years passed before Sartre realized to himself that existentialism does not imply any special system of morality, and this philosophical position itself is more of an "ideology" than a philosophical comprehension in the proper sense of the word. And this act of individual self-knowledge is the result of a whole series of "intellectual experiments": the prose trilogy "Roads of Freedom" (1945-1949), theoretical essays like "What is Literature" (1947), and, first of all, plays, from which a special resonance was caused " Dirty Hands" (1948) and "The Devil and the Lord God" (1951). Political activity Sartre brought him deep disappointment and led to an attempt to radically reconstruct his thought. He conceived the work "Critique of Dialectical Reason" in two volumes: the first - as a theoretical and abstract study, the second - as an interpretation of history. However, Critique was never completed. Sartre abandoned the second volume after writing only a few chapters. The first volume was published in 1960 and was rated as "a monster of unreadability". Sartre stunned the public by admitting that at the present time Marxism alone is becoming "the soil of every individual thought and the horizon of all culture."

The 1960s are the peak of Sartre's popularity, in 1964 the Swedish Academy awards him the Nobel Prize in Literature. And again, Sartre amazed the audience: he refused to accept this prize, which caused the most contradictory responses. And he explained simply: he did not accept, because it has a political meaning and quite definite - the inclusion of a person in the bourgeois elite. In September - October 1965, Sartre spoke in Tokyo and Kyoto with a series of lectures "In Defense of Intellectuals", in which he contrasted them with "techniques of practical knowledge." A genuine intellectual is "the guardian of fundamental goals (emancipation, universalization, humanization of man ...). With age, Sartre became more and more irreconcilable. In the second half of the 1960s, the Vietnam War broke out with the most active participation of the United States. Sartre becomes chairman of the" public tribunal Russell", whose purpose was to investigate the facts of the genocide in Vietnam. "In 1945, the concept of a political crime first appeared in Nuremberg. Our tribunal proposes nothing else than to apply its own laws to capitalist imperialism. The legal arsenal is not limited to the Nuremberg Laws, there is also the Briand-Kellogg Pact, the Geneva Convention and other international relations.

The year 1968 came, which left a decisive imprint on the rest of Sartre's life. In May, serious student unrest broke out in Paris, and the 63-year-old philosopher decided that the hour had come to overthrow the "dictatorship of the bourgeoisie." Especially inspired by the slogan of the rebellious students - "imagination to power!", because the imagination, according to Sartre, is the most characteristic and most precious feature of human reality. He began his philosophical work with the phenomenology of the imagination, an outline of which was published as early as 1936, and ended with it, exploring the world of Flaubert's imagination. But ringing slogans did not help the cause, de Gaulle's government quickly restored order, and Sartre finally waved his hand at the communists, accusing them of being "afraid of the revolution."

In the spring of 1970, Sartre became the editor-in-chief of the Maoist newspaper Narodnoye Delo with the aim, as he himself said, to protect this publication from police persecution to some extent with his authority, and there were grounds for such persecution. This can even be judged from an interview that Sartre gave in 1972 - an interview pointedly titled "I believe in illegality."

In 1979, Sartre took part in the last political action of his life. It was a demand for the government to accept refugees from Vietnam, when tens of thousands of people in fragile boats went to the open sea to find shelter on a foreign side; and a considerable number of them perished... For the last time, the old philosopher demonstrated that the life and freedom of an individual is more precious to him than ideological dogmas. Sad optimism emanates from his last conversation with his secretary. "You see, my writings are unsuccessful. I did not say everything I wanted, nor the way I wanted it ... I think ... the future will refute many of my statements; I hope some of them will stand the test, but in any case History is slowly moving towards the realization of man by man ... This is what gives what we have done and will do, a kind of immortality. In other words, one must believe in progress. And this, perhaps, is one of my last naiveties. "

There was no official funeral. Jean-Paul Sartre, who died in 1980, asked for it himself before he died. The famous French writer, an active participant in the left movement and the greatest philosopher of his time, valued sincerity above all else. However, as the funeral procession moved along the left bank of Paris, past the places beloved by the writer, 50 thousand people spontaneously joined it.

Sartre Jean Paul (1905-1980) - French philosopher, writer, literary critic, political publicist. Sartre's world fame peaked in the 1940s-1950s, when he became the recognized leader not only of French, but of all European "progressive-minded" intellectuals. This fame was due not so much to the content of the ideas expressed by him, but to the brightness and diversity of his presence in the spiritual atmosphere of post-war Europe. Sartre's "total intellectualism" allows us to consider him not as a philosopher who also wrote works of art, but rather as an author who expressed his thoughts "in different registers" (M. Comte), actively invading new spaces of expression, due to the progress of the mass media. Sartre's philosophical works comprise seven volumes of his extensive legacy. The main works in this regard: "Imaginary" (1940); "Being and Nothing" (1943); "Critique of Dialectical Reason" (T. 1 - 1960, T. 2 - 1985). But his numerous plays, biographies, autobiographies, novels, short stories, articles, notes, speeches on the radio and at political rallies are also imbued with philosophical content.

Sartre turns his own life into the basic material for philosophy. He grew up without a father, in a Catholic-Protestant environment, in a literary and teaching environment. The absence of a father, experienced as the "absence of God", an early passion for literary creativity, more broadly - for "writing", determined the philosophical orientation of his entire future life: "theism", due to the refusal to depend on an external "creator", on the essential predetermined nature of human existence. at all; recognition of the rootlessness of man in the world, expressed in the fundamental contingency of human existence, opposed to the need to be "by right" as an inauthentic, false image of man; finally, the "neurosis of literature", from which Sartre never recovered, as a way of self-creation, self-generation in culture. The fundamental contingency of a person is revealed at the level of pre-reflexive grasping by him of his in-the-world-being, "abandonment" into the world, "out of excess" of his presence in it. Chance is experienced prior to any constitution of the subject as a "simple sense of existence" found in the experience that gave the name to Sartre's first novel, Nausea. The self-evident contingency of human existence is correlative to the total freedom of consciousness. Man's existence is accomplished by projecting himself into the future. Man creates his own foundation. Therefore, he is entirely responsible for it, not having the right to shift his responsibility to the "causal order of the world", to his essence. His "existence precedes essence." I am responsible for my existence as soon as it accepts its life as something not chosen by it. It is an agreement to live spontaneously. It precedes every volitional act "within" life.

From the very beginning of his philosophical path, Sartre rejected the alternatives of materialism and idealism, equally taking them as types of reductionism, reducing the personality either to various bodily combinations, or to the Idea, the Spirit, which has a supra-individual character. In any case, according to Sartre, the autonomy of a person is lost, his freedom is made impossible and, consequently, the ethical horizon of being is eliminated. No less dislike caused the philosopher and entered in the 1920s. fashion psychoanalysis. Matter, Spirit or the Unconscious "construct" a person in the same way. And what is left for him? Sartre's understanding of freedom, which he finally formulated in Saint Genet, looks like this: "a man is what he makes of what has been made of him."

Sartre was one of the most prominent French phenomenologists. He became acquainted with this philosophical direction during his internship in Germany in 1933-1934. His first phenomenological, as well as actually philosophical work was "The Transcendence of the Ego" (1934). In it, he largely follows E. Husserl, but also radically "corrects" him. The "correction" consists in the denial of Husserl's "transcendental ego", which Sartre considers as a return to the idea of ​​the subject's substantiality, which crosses out the original spontaneity and contingency of human existence. The key to clarifying the nature of the structure of consciousness Sartre considers pre-reflexive consciousness, which he describes as a spontaneous and immanent "transparency" of consciousness for itself. The transcendental field of consciousness is cleared from the I, from the subject. Sartre finds "nothing" at the basis of any conscious act. Consciousness is not causally determined, it literally creates "out of nothing". The freedom of consciousness in this respect is not limited by anything. Moreover, thanks to the consciousness "nothing" comes into the world.

In further pre-war works, Sartre explored the theme of freedom of consciousness on the examples of the analysis of emotions, which are described as variants of magical behavior, "non-antizing", i.e. denying, "difficult" reality ("Sketch of the theory of emotions"), and the work of the imagination ("Imaginary").

All these works can be considered as anticipating the main philosophical text of Sartre - the treatise "Being and Nothingness". Trying to create an ontology based on the phenomenological method, Sartre fixes the existence of two ways of being that are irreducible to each other: being-in-itself and being-for-itself. The ontological meaning of the first way is a simple reality, positivity, self-identity, inability to be different. This kind of being "is what it is." It is recognized as the objective world, as nature, as the sum of circumstances external to the consciousness, and also as the past of the person himself, as any “become” that cannot be made “not the former”. The second way is being, which we recognize by specifically human activity: questioning, denial, regret, and so on. This method reveals the insufficiency, non-identity of its carrier. This kind of being "is what it is not, and is not what it is." Thus, the main content of such being is negation, which is possible if nothing, emptiness, absence serves as its ontological meaning. Existing "out of nothing", it is determined neither by another being, nor by itself, and therefore it is totally free, it is revealed as an unceasing choice of oneself, transcendence and transcendence of oneself. Being-for-itself does not choose its facticity, the world in which it exists, i.e. its historical and social certainty, geographical, political, physical conditions for the realization of freedom. But it is responsible for the meaning that it gives to this sum of facts, transforming it into some significant (and therefore generally significant) place of life, into a specific situation. Man is his past, but he is existence, because he projects himself into the future, which does not exist as a positive being, but which forms the horizon of being-for-itself, which reveals itself outside. The future is a subject of search, embodiment. It is a kind of bait for existence, trailing after it in a hopeless attempt to seize it and thereby realize its possibilities, which, as they are realized, it discards as something alien, not coinciding with it. Sartre criticizes the "spirit of seriousness", which reveals itself, in particular, in "unscrupulous faith" (mauvaise foi), i.e. in man's attempt to merge with what he has become, with the desire to transform his past into the present, being-for-itself into being-in-itself, which can be relied upon for its positivity. Sartre finds attempts of this kind in religion, in artistic creativity, and, finally, in relation to the Other. The relationship with the Other, according to Sartre, is initially conflicting. The Consciousness of the Other is "my original sin." "Hell is others," Sartre proclaims in Locked Up. - I feel the presence of the Other in the gaze focused on me. This look steals me from me. He requires me to be someone, to match the way the Other grabs me. Another claims me; at the same time, he is interested in preserving my freedom, because, grasping me as a certain certainty, he loses me as a "non-antiscribing" being, as something else to himself, and yet he seeks precisely this. Our mutual need for each other requires both unity and the preservation of disunity. The ideal combination of both is God, but He is contradictory and must be rejected by reflection. Man is an incompleteness, and all his attempts to achieve the opposite betray in him only a "useless passion."

After the Second World War, Sartre, having experienced participation in the Resistance, begins to feel a political challenge, to which he cannot but respond, being the intellectual leader of his generation. The question that now worries him: "In what direction should the social conditions that led to the war be transformed?" This concern results in the question of history and the place in it of man with his existential freedom and, further, in the question of the political "engagement" of the intellectual. First, Sartre tries, both theoretically and practically, to draw a "third way" (which is also characteristic of his philosophical position) between the Marxist despotism in the USSR and the US imperial policy, understood as the search for "detotalized totality." With the outbreak of the war in Korea, the possibilities of the "third way" are sharply reduced, and Sartre definitely goes over to the side of Marxism, which he tries to combine with existentialism. A decisive milestone on this path is the Critique of Dialectical Reason. Recognizing Marxism as the "philosophical horizon" of the modern age, Sartre takes a metahistorical concept from it, trying to build into it an individual praxis, as he henceforth calls being-for-itself. Actually, the dialectics of history is conditioned by this kind of praxis, which is no longer realized at the level of the individual, but of a special collective - a "practical ensemble". Sartre agrees with K. Marx that a person makes history based on the practice of previous generations. However, Sartre's emphasis is on the free projectivity of historical activity, which is only partially determined by material conditions (an analogue of being-in-itself) that reveal themselves in the form of a "practical-inert field". This activity, directed against "seriality", inertness and disunity, is a free combination of individual practices, where their authors recognize themselves in each other, where I accumulate their subjectivity in We - the true creator of history.

Sartre's influence on the spiritual climate of the era was very diverse. He contributed to a radical turn of philosophy to the sphere of everyday life. His post-war work drew attention to social issues, returning it to the sphere of intellectual priorities. He was one of the few philosophers who in the 20th century. made a radical contribution to the transformation of the Marxist historical model. His existential psychoanalysis, developed at the level of biographies, and above all the multi-volume biography of G. Flaubert, despite his rejection of "traditional" psychoanalysis, is also an important element of the humanitarian innovations of the 20th century.

Primary attitude to another: love, language, masochism (ch. from the book "Being and Nothing") // The problem of man in Western philosophy. M., 1988; Existentialism is humanism // Twilight of the gods. M., 1989; Method problems. M., 1994; Being and nothingness (Conclusion) // Philosophical search. Vitebsk, 1995. No. 1; La Transcendence de l "Ego. Paris, 1966; L" Etre et le neant. Essai de l "ontologie phenomenologique. Paris, 1943; Critique de la raison dialectique. V. 1. Paris, 1960, V. 2. Paris, 1985.
Kuznetsov V.N. J.-P. Sartre and existentialism. M., 1970; Kissel M.A. Philosophical evolution of J.P. Sartre. L., 1974; Filipov L.I. Philosophical anthropology Zh.P. Sartre. M., 1977; Contat M., Rybalka M. Les fecrits de Sartre. Chronologie, bibliogrhahie commentee. Paris, 1970; Hodard P. Sartre entre Marx et Freud. Paris, 1979; Collins D. Sartre as Biographer. Cambridge, 1980; Autour de Jean-Paul Sartre: Litterature et philosophie. Paris, 1982; Jean-Paul Sartre // Revue philosophique de la France et de Tetranger. 1996. No. 3.

(1905-1980) - French philosopher, writer, one of the most significant representatives of French phenomenology, founder of atheistic existentialism. Starting from some ideas of Descartes, Hegel, Kierkegaard, Freud, Husserl, Heidegger and (in the late period of creativity) Marx, Sartre develops the idea of ​​the specificity and authenticity of human existence; develops the concept of being, including in the concept of being individual freedom as its constitutive element; offers original methodological means of analyzing and describing this constitution as an individually specific event in the universe, as a unique and irreplaceable act of existence in the historical process (method of existential psychoanalysis, regressive-progressive and analytic-synthetic method).

Sartre begins in the 1930s with attempts to apply and creatively develop the phenomenological principles of describing and analyzing the structures of consciousness and self-consciousness of a person, radicalizes Husserl's operation of phenomenological reduction in order to cleanse consciousness from the "psychic", as a result of which he comes to the rejection of the idea of ​​the egological structure of consciousness, the statement autonomy of irreflexive consciousness, its immanent unity and ontological priority in relation to the reflective level with its construction of the Self ("Transcendence of the Ego", 1934). On this path, Sartre seeks to reveal the sphere of "absolute consciousness" as a "transcendental sphere of freedom" and a condition of existence. Having undertaken a phenomenological description of the essence of imagination and emotion as intentionally organized behaviors of consciousness in the world (Imagination, 1936; Sketch of a Theory of Emotions, 1939; The Imaginary, 1940), Sartre develops an ontological analysis of the creative status of consciousness in the universe: its ability to break away from the given, autonomously project the "non-existent" and - in accordance with its project, non-antizing and transcending the present - articulate the existing in a certain way, transform it into the "world", "situation", "concrete and singular totality", into the "concrete".

Sartre's main philosophical treatise "Being and Nothing. An Experience of Phenomenological Ontology" (1943) is devoted to the study of questions: what is being? what are the fundamental existential relations between consciousness and the world? What are the ontological structures of consciousness (subjectivity) that make these relationships possible? in what way it is possible to fix, conceptualize and decipher the ontological constitutiveness of a person as a finite, single, concrete existence, i.e. in its existential irreducibility and self-essence? In search of answers to these questions, Sartre proceeds from the idea of ​​the world as a phenomenon. The world, directly discovered by a person in his life experience, is, according to Sartre, a complex formation, previously (on a pre-reflexive level) always already structured by existence. In it the consciousness of man is "always already realized", always already acting and crystallizing its work in the form of "totalities". Trying to read it, Sartre singles out in the world as a phenomenon of "synthetically organized totality", "concrete" three of its constituent regions. Being-in-itself (the first region) is any factual given to living consciousness and "is what it is." These are the raw circumstances of the emergence of consciousness in their inevitable accident, any empirical conditions in which individual consciousness reveals itself and which constitute its facticity (epoch, geographical, social, class, nationality of a person, his past, environment, place, psyche, character, inclinations, physiological constitution, etc.). The second region is living consciousness (being-for-itself). Its ontological status lies in the fact that, being the discovery and disclosure of the given, consciousness is "nothing" (neant), emptiness, negation, non-antization of itself and the world, constant leakage, presence with the world and with itself, "non-substantial absolute", autonomously projecting themselves in the world to their own capabilities and aware of their authorship. The term "nonantization" introduced by Sartre does not mean the destruction (annihilation) of the given by the consciousness; it is, as it were, an enveloping of the given by consciousness (“a clutch of nothingness”), distancing and neutralizing the movement of consciousness, suspending the given in uncertainty within the project as “non-existent”. By the act of projecting itself, consciousness tries to get rid of the contingency of its facticity and to exist "on its own grounds"; thus man invents his own way of being in the world, among things, etc. Freedom is thus contrasted with chance (given as "existence without reason"). It is defined as autonomy (ownership), the effort of a person to self-determine what is simply given to him, giving himself this given, i.e. constantly renewing it in the space of one's own interpretation, entering into a certain relation to it, giving it a certain meaning by one's choice. This allows Sartre to treat the individual as the author of all the meanings of his experience and all his behaviors. Being self-conscious, Sartre's man is free, sane and totally responsible for the world and himself in it. The appearance in the world of a "foundation", or "expanding of being" as the emergence in it of a relation of a person to a given, Sartre calls an ontological act of freedom, a choice of a person, a fountain of consciousness in the universe, an "absolute event" that occurs with being. Man projects himself under the sign of self-causality as a value. This "missing" consciousness is, according to Sartre, the third, ideal region implied in the concept of the world as a phenomenon. Only thanks to the discovery and disclosure by consciousness of being-in-itself, this non-antizing, projecting, signifying and totalizing mediation of consciousness (the synthesis of the given in the unity of the project) "there is being itself", the world, personality and value are born, says Sartre. The moment of self-determination of a person in being, which is possible only because consciousness is for-itself, turns out for Sartre to be the breaking point of the natural, causal chain in being, the appearance of a "crack", a "hole" in it and the possibility of establishing a moral - free, in the universe, counterfactual - order. "Being and Nothingness" explores the situation as an indissoluble synthesis of consciousness and the given, freedom and facticity. Given in the perspective of live eventfulness and risky (non-guaranteed) openness, being in Sartre's ontology is interpreted as an "individual adventure", an event of actual articulation of the existing project ("not yet existing"). Being is what man ventures into, he is compromised by it: between them is a relation of complicity. Freedom in every person, this synonym for consciousness in Sartre, is declared the basis (internal structure) of being, the world, history, the “groundless”, open basis of all connections and relations in the world.

The authenticity of human existence presupposes the understanding and acceptance by a person of his unjustifiability, unconditional freedom, authorship and personal responsibility. Having identified as the universal structure of the personality its "fundamental project" - the unattainable desire to become God (total being, consciousness, which would be at the same time the basis of one's own being-in-itself), - Sartre develops the method of existential psychoanalysis. It should make it possible to reveal the "original choice" of a person - a specific individual and unique specification of this "fundamental project" - as the basis of the states, experiences and actions of a person, as a productive structure, a single logical meaning and a single theme, stably reproduced by an individual (although variable) in a wide variety of empirical situations, projects and behaviors. It is the original choice of a person that, according to Sartre, should serve as "the basis for the totality of meanings that constitute reality."

In "Being and Nothing" the problem of the Other is also explored, a radical difference between the relations between consciousnesses and the relations of consciousness with being-in-itself is revealed. Inspired by the Hegelian idea of ​​the Other as a condition and mediator of my own individuality, critically considering the developments of Husserl and Heidegger, Sartre seeks to transfer the conversation from the plane of cognition and a priori ontological description - where the Other, in his opinion, remains abstract - to the field of describing the Other as real (concrete, singular) existence, which is the concrete condition and mediator of my selfhood. Submitting his philosophizing to the unconditional requirement of self-evidence, Sartre attempts to carry out this project on the basis of a modification of the Cartesian cogito. He offers a phenomenological description of the Other at the level of the "actual necessity" of his presence in my immediate, everyday life experience. Having discovered that the structure of the connection "I - the Other" - "to be seen by the Other", Sartre develops the phenomenology of the "look", while revealing the tense dynamics of the relationship of "objectivity" and "free self" between its participants. Since the Other (like myself) is freedom, transcendence (and hence the sector of unforeseeability), "I am in danger in the world." The relationship "I - Other", according to Sartre, is a conflict of two freedoms, and the "scandal of the plurality of consciousnesses" cannot be eliminated within the framework of ontology. Both drama and, at the same time, the possibility of existential unity in relations between consciousnesses are associated by Sartre with the problem of their mutual recognition ("I accept and I want others to give me the being that I recognize").

After Sartre's death, his unfinished philosophical works "Notebooks on Morals" (1983), "Truth and Existence" (1989) were published. Sartre's effort to redefine and substantiate human freedom in the space of modern philosophical thought and the moral pathos of his philosophy associated with this determined the powerful influence of his work on the spiritual climate of Europe in the middle of the 20th century, aroused keen interest and loud debate. In a dispute with various forms of deterministic reductionism of the 20th century. Sartre defended and developed the idea of ​​the specificity of a person and the philosophical way of considering it, developed a different type of rationality of human behavior and history, compared to the analytical determinism of the so-called humanities, which includes existence as a “concrete” and considers as its basis the projecting and self-aware individual practice. Sartre's social philosophy and his concept of history contributed to a significant shift of interests towards social issues in France and beyond. In recent years, the ethical and socio-political views of Sartre, his biographical method, have attracted more and more attention.

"Existentialism is nothing more than an attempt to draw all the conclusions from consistent atheism. It does not at all try to plunge a person into despair. But if, as Christians do, all unbelief is called despair, then it is primordial despair that is its starting point. Existentialism - not the kind of atheism that wastes itself on proving that God does not exist. Rather, it states the following: even if God existed, it would not change anything. That is our point of view. This does not mean that we believe in the existence of God, - it's just that the point is not whether there is a god.Man must find himself and be convinced that nothing can save him from himself, not even reliable proof of the existence of god.In this sense, existentialism is optimism, the doctrine of action.And only because of dishonesty By confusing their own despair with ours, Christians may call us despairing."
"Existentialism is humanism".

"Existence is prior to essence. Man is nothing at birth and throughout his life he is no more than the sum of his past commitments. To believe in anything outside his own will is to be guilty of "bad Faith." Existentialist despair and anguish is the acknowledgment that man is condemned to freedom. There is no God, so man must rely upon his own fallible will and moral insight. He cannot escape choosing".

French philosopher, representative of atheistic existentialism, writer, playwright and essayist, teacher

Jean-Paul Sartre

short biography

Jean-Paul Charles Aimard Sartre(French Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre; June 21, 1905, Paris - April 15, 1980, ibid.) - French philosopher, representative of atheistic existentialism (in 1952-1954 Sartre leaned towards Marxism, however, before that he positioned himself as a person leftist), writer, playwright and essayist, teacher.

He returned the term "Anti-Roman", which became the designation of a literary movement, to the practical vocabulary of literary criticism.

Winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1964, which he declined.

Jean-Paul Sartre was born in Paris and was the only child in the family. His father is Jean-Baptiste Sartre, an officer in the French navy, and his mother is Anna-Maria Schweitzer. On his mother's side, Jean-Paul was the cousin of Albert Schweitzer. When Jean-Paul was 15 months old, his father died. The family moved to the parental home in Meudon.

Sartre was educated at the Lyceums of La Rochelle, graduated from the Higher Normal School (fr. École normale supérieure) in Paris with a dissertation in philosophy, and trained at the French Institute in Berlin (1934). He taught philosophy at various lyceums in France (1929-1939 and 1941-1944); since 1944 he devoted himself entirely to literary work. While still a student, he met Simone de Beauvoir, who became not only his life partner, but also a like-minded author.

Together with Simone de Beauvoir and Maurice Merleau-Ponty, he founded the magazine New Times ( Les Temps modernes). He spoke as a supporter of peace at the Vienna Congress of Nations in Defense of Peace in 1952, in 1953 he was elected a member of the World Peace Council.

In 1956, Sartre and the editors of the New Times magazine distanced themselves (unlike Camus) from accepting the idea of ​​French Algeria and supported the independence of the Algerian people. Sartre opposes torture, defends the freedom of peoples to determine their own destiny, analyzes violence as a gangrenous derivative of colonialism.

After repeated threats from French nationalists, they bombed his flat in the center of Paris twice; Nationalist militants seized the editorial office of Novye Vremya five times.

Sartre, like many third world intellectuals, actively supported the Cuban revolution of 1959. In June 1960 he wrote 16 articles in France entitled "Hurricane for Sugar". During this time, he collaborated with the Cuban news agency Prensa Latina. But then there was a break with Castro, in 1971, because of the "Padilla case", when the Cuban poet Padilla was imprisoned for criticizing the Castro regime.

Sartre took an active part in the Russell War Crimes Tribunal in Vietnam. In 1967, the International War Crimes Tribunal held two meetings - in Stockholm and in Roskilde, where Sartre made his sensational speech about genocide, including in French Algeria.

Sartre was a participant in the revolution in France in 1968 (one might even say, its symbol: the rebellious students, having captured the Sorbonne, let only Sartre inside), in the post-war years - numerous democratic, Maoist movements and organizations. Participated in protests against the Algerian War, the suppression of the Hungarian uprising of 1956, the Vietnam War, against the invasion of American troops in Cuba, against the entry of Soviet troops into Prague, against the suppression of dissent in the USSR. Throughout his life, his political positions fluctuated quite strongly, but always remained leftist, and Sartre always defended the rights of a destitute person, that very humiliated "Self-Taught", to quote the novel Nausea.

In 1968, during student unrest in Paris, Jean-Paul Sartre refused to establish a student prize in his honor at the Sorbonne (the prize was supposed to be awarded for the best student essay on topics devoted to the problems of interpreting the concepts of freedom, existential choice and humanism in general).

During another protest that turned into riots, J.-P. Sartre, which caused indignation among the students. When Charles de Gaulle found out about this, he ordered the release of Sartre, saying: "France does not imprison Voltaires."

Jean-Paul Sartre died on April 15, 1980 in Paris from pulmonary edema, and 50 thousand people saw him off on his last journey.

Creation

Sartre's literary activity began with the novel "Nausea" (fr. La Nausée; 1938). This novel is considered by many critics to be the best work of Sartre, in which he rises to the deep ideas of the Gospel, but from an atheistic position.

Jean-Paul Sartre was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1964. "for rich ideas, imbued with the spirit of freedom and the search for truth, creativity that has had a huge impact on our time".

He refused to accept this award, declaring his unwillingness to be indebted to any social institution and question his independence. Similarly, in 1945 Sartre refused the Légion d'honneur. In addition, Sartre was embarrassed by the “bourgeois” and pronounced anti-Soviet orientation of the Nobel Committee, which, according to him (“Why I refused the prize”), chose the wrong moment for awarding the prize - when Sartre openly criticized the USSR.

In the same year, Sartre announced his rejection of literary activity, describing literature as a surrogate for the effective transformation of the world.

Sartre's worldview was formed under the influence, first of all, of Bergson, Husserl, Dostoevsky and Heidegger. Interested in psychoanalysis. He wrote the foreword to Franz Fanon's book "Cursed", thus contributing to the popularization of his ideas in Europe.

Philosophical concept

Liberty

One of the central concepts for the entire philosophy of Sartre is the concept of freedom. Sartre saw freedom as something absolute, given once and for all (“man is condemned to be free”). It precedes the essence of man. Sartre understands freedom not as the freedom of the spirit, leading to inaction, but as the freedom of choice that no one can take away from a person: the prisoner is free to make a decision - to accept or fight for his liberation, and what happens next depends on circumstances that are beyond the competence of the philosopher .

The concept of free will is developed by Sartre in the theory of "project", according to which the individual is not given to himself, but projects, "collects" himself as such. Thus, he is fully responsible for himself and for his actions. To characterize Sartre's position, Ponge's quote cited in the article "Existentialism is Humanism" is suitable for them: "Man is the future of man."

"Existence" is the constantly living moment of activity, taken subjectively. This concept does not denote a stable substance, but a constant loss of balance. In "Nausea" Sartre shows that the world has no meaning, "I" has no purpose. Through the act of consciousness and choice, "I" gives the world meaning and value.

It is human activity that gives meaning to the world around us. Objects are signs of individual human meanings. Outside of this, they are simply given, passive and inert circumstances. Giving them this or that individual human meaning, meaning, a person forms himself as one way or another outlined individuality.

Alienation

The concept of "alienation" is associated with the concept of freedom. Sartre understands the modern individual as an alienated being: his individuality is standardized (as a waiter with a professional smile and precisely calculated movements is standardized); subordinated to various social institutions that, as it were, "stand" above a person, and do not originate from him (for example, the state, which represents an alienated phenomenon - the alienation of an individual's ability to take part in the joint management of affairs), and therefore is deprived of the most important thing - the ability to create my history.

A person alienated from himself has problems with material objects - they put pressure on him with their obsessive existence, their viscous and solidly motionless presence, causing "nausea" (Antoine Roquentin's nausea in the work of the same name). In contrast to this, Sartre affirms special, immediate, integral human relationships.

Dialectics

The essence of dialectics lies in the synthetic unification into integrity (“totalization”), since dialectical laws make sense only within integrity. The individual "totalizes" material circumstances and relationships with other people and creates history himself - to the same extent that she - his. Objective economic and social structures act as a whole as an alienated superstructure above the internal-individual elements of the "project". The requirement of totalization assumes that a person is revealed in all his manifestations as a whole.

Totalization expands the space of human freedom, as the individual realizes that history is created by him.

Sartre insists that dialectics comes precisely from the individual, because from here follows its fundamental knowability, "transparency" and "rationality", as a result of the direct coincidence of human activity and the cognition of this activity (when performing an act, a person thinks that he knows , for which he does it). Since there is nothing of this in nature, Sartre denies the dialectics of nature, putting forward a number of arguments against it.

Compositions

Works of art

• Nausea (1938)
• Words (1964)
• Freud. Screenplay
• With Dirty Hands (Les Mains sales, 1948).
• Roads of Freedom (An unfinished tetralogy) (Les chemins de la liberté, 3 vols, 1945-1949)
  • "Age of Maturity"
  • "Delay"
  • "Death in the Soul"
  • "Strange Friendship"
• Plays
  • Flies (1943)
  • Behind Closed Doors ("Behind the Locked Door", "Locked Up", "No Exit") ("Huis clos", 1943)
  • The Dead Without Burial (Morts sans sépulture, 1946)
  • Respectful slut (La Putain respectueuse, 1946)
  • Devil and Lord God (1951)
  • "Only the truth" (Nekrasov).
  • "The Recluses of Altona" (Les Séquestrés d'Altona, 1960)
• Collection of short stories "The Wall" (1939)
  • Wall
  • Room
  • Herostratus
  • intimacy
  • Master's childhood
• The Trojan Women (Les Troyannes, 1968), based on the tragedy of Euripides

Literary criticism

• Every family has its black sheep. Gustave Flaubert (1821-1857)
• Explanation of the "Outsider"
• Aminadav, or On Science Fiction Considered as a Special Language
• Myth and reality of theater
• To the theater of situations

Philosophical and theoretical works

• What is literature
• Being and Nothing (L "Être et le néant, 1943)
• The main idea of ​​Husserl's phenomenology: intentionality
• Method problems
• Imagination
• ego transcendence. Outline of a phenomenological description
• Existentialism is humanism
• Cartesian freedom
• primary relation to others. Love, language, masochism
• Critique of Dialectical Reason

Political works

• Reflections on the Jewish Question (1944)
• On Genocide (from a speech at the Russell War Crimes Tribunal, 1968)
• Why did I turn down the award?
• An era devoid of morality (from an interview in 1975)
• Communist Party Fellow (interview given to Victor P. in November 1972)
• Left radicalism and illegality (conversation between Philip Gavi, Victor Pierre and J.-P. Sartre)
• Andreas Baader.
• Maoists in France
• Uprising in Hungary: The Ghost of Stalin (La révolte de la Hongrie: Le fantôme de Staline, 1956)
• "Rebellion is a just cause" (On a raison de se révolter, 1974)

Books in Russian

• Sartre J.-P. Existentialism is humanism / Per. from fr. M. Gretsky. M.: Izd-vo inostr. lit., 1953.
• Sartre J.-P. Only truth. M.: Art, 1956
• Sartre J.-P. Words. Moscow: Progress, 1966
• Sartre J.-P. Plays. M.: Art, 1967
• Sartre J.-P. Wall. Selected works. Moscow Publishing house of political literature 1992.- 480 p., 100,000 copies.
• Sartre J.-P. Herostratus / Per. from fr. D. Gamkrelidze, L. Grigoryan. M.: Respublika, 1992.- 224 p.,
• Sartre J.-P. Nausea: Selected Works / Per. from fr. V. P. Gaydamak; intro. Art. S. N. Zenkina. M.: Respublika, 1994.
• Sartre J.-P. Problems of the method / Per. from French; note V. P. Gaidamaki. Moscow: Progress, 1994.
• Sartre J.-P. Situations / Comp. and foreword. S. Velikovsky. Moscow: Ladomir, 1997.
• Sartre J.-P. Idiot in the family: G. Flaubert from 1821 to 1857 / Per. E. Plekhanov. St. Petersburg: Aletheya, 1998.
• Sartre J.P. Being and Nothing: An Experience of Phenomenological Ontology / Per. from French, foreword, note. V. I. Kolyadko. - M.: Respublika, 2000. - 640 p., 5,000 copies.
• Sartre J.-P. What is literature? / Per. from fr. N. I. Poltoratskaya. St. Petersburg: Aleteya: CEU, 2000.
• Sartre J.-P. Portrait of an anti-Semite. St. Petersburg: European House, 2000.
• Sartre J.-P. Last chance. St. Petersburg: Azbuka, 2000
• Sartre J.-P. Imaginary. Phenomenological psychology of imagination / Per. from fr. M. Beketova. St. Petersburg: Nauka, 2001. - 320 p.,
• Sartre J.-P. Strange War Diaries, September 1939 - March 1940 / Foreword. and note. A. E. Sartre; per. from fr. O. Volchek and S. Fokina. St. Petersburg: Vladimir Dal, 2002.
• Sartre J.-P. Words. Recluses of Altona / Per. from fr. L. Kirkach. M .: LLC "Publishing house AST", 2002.
• Sartre J.-P. Baudelaire / Per. from fr. G. K. Kosikova. M.: URSS, 2004.
• Sartre J.-P. Transcendence of the ego: A sketch of a phenomenological description./Translated from fr. D.Kralechkina. M.: Modern, 2012

Sartre J.-P. Portrait of an Anti-Semite [: novella "Childhood of the Leader" / "Wall", 1939 and essay "Reflections on the Jewish Question", 1944, 1946] / Per. from fr. G. Notkina. St. Petersburg: Azbuka, 2006. - 256 p. ("ABC-classic" pocket-book)

• Sartre J.-P. Plays. Moscow: Fluid, 2008.
  • Flies / Per. from fr. L. Zonina
  • Dead without burial / Per. from fr. E. Yakushkina
  • Respectful slut (Lizzy McKay) / Per. from fr. L. Bolshintsova
  • The Devil and the Lord God / Per. from fr. E. Puchkova
  • Recluses of Altona / Per. from fr. L. Bolshintsova
• Sartre J.-P. Man under siege / Comp., intro. st., note. L. N. Tokareva. M.: Vagrius, 2006.
  • Words / Per. from fr. Yu. Ya. Yakhnina and L. A. Zonina
  • Diaries of the "strange war". September 1939 - March 1940 (fragments of the book) / Per. from fr. O. E. Volchek and S. L. Fokina
  • Existentialism is humanism / Per. from fr. M. N. Gretsky
  • Why I refused the Nobel Prize
  • Conversations between Jean Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir in August-September 1974 / Per. from fr. L. N. Tokareva

Publications in Russian

• Sartre J.-P. Essay on the theory of emotions / Per. from fr. E. E. Nasinovskaya and A. A. Bubble, in the book "Psychology of emotions", comp. V. K. Vilyunas. St. Petersburg: Peter, 2008.

Publications about J.-P. Sartre

• Velikovsky S. The Path of Sartre the Playwright 1967
• Kissel M. A. Philosophical evolution of J.-P. Sartre Lenizdat, 1976
• Gretsky M.N. Marxist Philosophical Thought in France. M.: Publishing House of Moscow University, 1977.
• Dolgov K. M. Aesthetics of Jean-Paul Sartre. Moscow: Knowledge, 1990.
• Andreev L. G. Jean-Paul Sartre: free consciousness and the 20th century. Moscow: Geleos, 2004.
• Alsberg K. Sick place. Jewry, desire and language in Sartre // J.-P. Sartre in the Present Tense: Autobiography in Literature, Philosophy and Politics. St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg State University, 2006. S. 169-186.

Jean-Paul Charles Aimard Sartre(French Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre; June 21, 1905, Paris - April 15, 1980, ibid) - French philosopher, representative of atheistic existentialism (in 1952-1954 Sartre held positions close to Marxism), writer, playwright and essayist.
Public activities and biographical notes
Sartre was, among other things, a public figure, a participant in the revolution in France in 1968 (one might even say its symbol: the rebellious students, having captured the Sorbonne, let only Sartre inside), in the post-war years - numerous democratic movements and organizations. During his life, his political positions fluctuated quite a lot. Together with Simone de Beauvoir and Maurice Merleau-Ponty, he founded the magazine Les Temps modernes. He spoke as a supporter of peace at the Vienna Congress of Nations in Defense of Peace in 1952, in 1953 he was elected a member of the World Peace Council.
Cousin of Albert Schweitzer. Sartre's literary activity began with the novel "Nausea" (fr. La Nausée; 1938). In 1964, Jean-Paul Sartre was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature "for his work, rich in ideas, imbued with the spirit of freedom and the search for truth, which has had a huge impact on our time." However, he refused to accept this award, declaring his unwillingness to be indebted to any social institution. In the same year, Sartre announced his rejection of literary activity, describing literature as a surrogate for the effective transformation of the world.
Educated at the Lyceums of La Rochelle, graduated from the Higher Normal School ("Ecole Normal") in Paris with a dissertation in philosophy, trained at the French Institute in Berlin (1934). He taught philosophy at various lyceums in France (1929-39 and 1941-44); since 1944 devoted himself entirely to literary work. While still a student, he met Simone de Beauvoir, who became not only his life partner, but also a like-minded author.
Sartre's worldview was formed primarily under the influence of Bergson, Husserl and Heidegger.
Philosophical concept
Liberty
One of the central concepts for the entire philosophy of Sartre is the concept of freedom. Sartre saw freedom as something absolute, given once and for all (“man is condemned to be free”). It precedes the essence of man. Sartre understands freedom not as the freedom of the spirit, leading to inaction, but as the freedom of choice that no one can take away from a person: the prisoner is free to make a decision - to accept or fight for his liberation, and what happens next depends on circumstances that are beyond the competence of the philosopher .
The concept of free will is developed by Sartre in the theory of "project", according to which the individual is not given to himself, but projects, "collects" himself as such. Thus, he is fully responsible for himself and for his actions. To characterize Sartre's position, Ponge's quotation cited in the article "Existentialism is Humanism" is suitable for them: "Man is the future of man."
"Existence" is the constantly living moment of activity, taken subjectively. This concept does not denote a stable substance, but a constant loss of balance. In "Nausea" Sartre shows that the world has no meaning, "I" has no purpose. Through the act of consciousness and choice, "I" gives the world meaning and value.
It is human activity that gives meaning to the world around us. Objects are signs of individual human meanings. Outside of this, they are simply given, passive and inert circumstances. Giving them this or that individual human meaning, meaning, a person forms himself as one way or another outlined individuality.
Alienation
The concept of "alienation" is associated with the concept of freedom. Sartre understands the modern individual as an alienated being: his individuality is standardized (as a waiter with a professional smile and precisely calculated movements is standardized); subordinated to various social institutions that, as it were, "stand" above a person, and do not originate from him (for example, the state, which represents an alienated phenomenon - the alienation of an individual's ability to take part in the joint management of affairs), and, therefore, is deprived of the most important thing - the ability to make your own history.
A person alienated from himself has problems with material objects - they put pressure on him with their obsessive existence, their viscous and solidly motionless presence, causing "nausea" (Antoine Roquentin's nausea in the work of the same name). In contrast to this, Sartre affirms special, immediate, integral human relationships.
Dialectics
The essence of dialectics lies in the synthetic unification into integrity (“totalization”), since dialectical laws make sense only within integrity. The individual "totalizes" material circumstances and relationships with other people and creates history himself - to the same extent that she - his. Objective economic and social structures act as a whole as an alienated superstructure above the internal-individual elements of the "project". The requirement of totalization assumes that a person is revealed in all his manifestations as a whole. Totalization expands the space of human freedom, as the individual realizes that history is created by him.
Sartre insists that dialectics comes precisely from the individual, because from here follows its fundamental knowability, "transparency" and "rationality", as a result of the direct coincidence of human activity and the cognition of this activity (performing any act, a person knows why he does it). Since there is nothing of this nature in nature, Sartre denies the dialectic of nature, putting forward a whole series of arguments against it.

Main works
* "Being and Nothingness"
* "Imagination"
* "Imaginary"
* "Dirty hands"
* "Roads of Freedom (Incomplete Tetralogy)"
* "Critique of Dialectical Reason"
* "Flies"
* "Problems of Method"
* "Words"
* "Wall"
* "Nausea"
* Reflections on the Jewish Question (1944)
* "Existentialism is humanism"
* "Last chance"
* "Age of maturity"